BRARY 

YERSITY  OF 
iLIFORNIA 

N   DIEGO 


J 


PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS 


AND 


EXPLORERS 


AMELIA  B.  EDWARDS 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW    YORK 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS,   FRANKLIN    SQUARE 
1  892 


Copyright,  1891,  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS. 


All  rights  reserved. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  chapters  contain,  with  large  additions,  notes,  and 
references,  the  substance  of  a  course  of  lectures  on  ancient  Egyptian 
subjects  recently  delivered  in  the  United  States  of  America.  While 
necessarily  recasting  the  form  of  these  lectures,  I  have  to  some  ex- 
tent preserved  the  colloquial  style — in  the  hope,  I  confess,  of  being 
the  better  remembered  by  those  who  have  heard  them. 

For  permission  to  reproduce  various  illustrations  from  the  works 
of  Professor  Maspero,  MM.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
and  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  I  have  to  offer  my  grateful  acknowledgments 
to  Messrs.  Grevel  &  Co.,  Chapman  &  Hall,  Longmans,  Williams  <fc 
Norgate,  and  the  Committee  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund. 

The  reproductions  from  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie's  series  of  original 
photographs  are  executed  by  special  arrangement  with  Mr.  Petrie. 

AMELIA  B.  EDWARDS. 
WESTBHRY-OM-TRTM,  ENGLAND, 
March,  1891. 


CONTENTS. 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 

Our  knowledge  of  Egypt  ever  on  the  increase — Continuous  march  of  explo- 
ration— Foundation  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund  in  1883— Egypt  an 
inexhaustible  mine  of  antiquities  —  Funerary  customs  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians— Approximate  number  of  mummies  embalmed  during  4700 
years  — Egyptian  mounds  —  How  these  mounds  were  formed,  their 
growth  and  decay — Story  of  a  typical  mound — Excavation  of  a  typical 
mound — Objects  likely  to  be  found  in  Egyptian  mounds — Exploration 
in  Upper  Egypt — The  tomb-pits  of  Upper  Egypt — Exploration  in  Lower 
Egypt — Excavation  of  Tell  Nebesheh  in  the  Eastern  Delta — Interesting 
antiquities  discovered  at  Tell  Nebesheh — Tell  Defenneh — Hardships  in- 
cidental to  the  work  of  exploration  in  Egypt — Necessary  qualifications 
of  the  explorer — Homer  in  the  Fayum— Definition  of  archaeology — The 
explorer  "born,  not  made" — Discovery  of  Naukratis  by  Mr.  Petrie— 
Ruins  of  the  temples  of  Apollo,  Hera,  Zeus,  and  Aphrodite  mentioned 
by  Herodotus — "The  potter's  quarter"  —  The  house  of  the  scarab- 
maker —  The  house  of  the  jeweller  —  Evolution  of  Greek  from  Egyp- 
tian art — Discovery  of  Masonic  deposits— Great  historical  value  of  this 
discovery — Ceramic  riches  of  Naukratis Pages  3-36 

II. 

THE  BURIED  CITIES  OF   ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

Extreme  antiquity  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  monarchy  —  The  ITorshesu,  or 
"Followers  of  Horus "—Probable  age  of  the  Great  Sphinx— Wealth  of 
Egypt  in  building  material — The  ancient  Egyptians  a  nation  of  builders 
—Destruction  of  the  mounds  of  the  Delta  by  native  laborers— Excava- 
tions conducted  by  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund— Archaeological  survey 
of  Egypt  recently  undertaken  by  this  society — "Pithom  and  Raam- 
ses  "— The  Hebrews  in  the  Land  of  Goshen— Tell  Abfi  Suleiman  identi- 
fied by  Lepsius  with  Pithom  and  Tell-el-Maskhutah  with  "Raamses" 
—Excavation  of  the  mound  of  Maskhutah  by  M.  Naville— Tell-el-Mask- 
hutah proves  to  be  "Pithom  of  Succoth "—Identification  of  the  route 


viii  CONTENTS. 

of  the  Exodus — Store-chambers  of  Pithom — Bricks  of  Pithom — Mr.  Pe- 
trie's  excavations  at  Tanis  (Zoan)  —  The  great  temple  of  Tanis  —  The 
largest  colossus  ever  sculptured  by  the  hand  of  man — House  of  Bakak- 
hiu  at  Tanis — Great  discovery  of  papyri  and  other  manuscripts — The 
granite  shrine  of  Saft  el-Henneh — Daphnse  of  Pelusium — The  camps  of 
Psammetichus — Occupation  of  Daphnse  by  Greek  mercenary  troops — 
Siege  of  Jerusalem  (B.C.  585)  and  flight  of  the  daughters  of  Zedekiah 
into  Egypt  —  Settlement  of  the  Hebrew  fugitives  at  Daphnae  —  The 
prophecy  of  Jeremiah— Mr.  Petrie's  excavations  at  Daphua?  (Tell  De- 
fenneh) — Palace-fort  of  Psammetichus  I. — Masonic  deposits  of  Psam- 
metichus I.  —  Identification  of  the  palace-fort  with  "Pharaoh's  House 
in  Tahpanhes" — Discovery  of  the  brick-work,  or  pavement,  mentioned 
by  Jeremiah — Historical  testimony  of  the  ruins  of  the  palace-fort  of 
Psammetichus — Conflicting  testimony  of  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  in- 
scriptions— Discovery  of  clay  cylinders  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Pages  37-69 


III. 

PORTRAIT  PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

Egyptian  sculptures  and  paintings  the  oldest  in  the  world  —  The  art  of 
drawing  more  ancient  than  that  of  sculpture  —  Prehistoric  art  —  Sub- 
jects of  the  earliest  Egyptian  paintings — Treatment  of  the  human  figure 
by  ancient  Egyptian  daughtsmen  —  Conventional  coloring  of  ancient 
Egyptian  artists  —  The  skill  with  which  Egyptian  artists  reproduced 
the  ethnic  types  of  foreign  nations — Errors  of  ancient  Egyptian  artists 
— The  same  errors  common  to  early  art  in  all  the  nations  of  antiquity 
— Ancient  Greek  painting — The  art  of  painted  vases — Ancient  criticisms 
and  anecdotes  of  Polygnotus  ;  of  Xeuxis  ;  of  Apelles — Unparalleled 
luxury  of  the  early  Greek  painters  —  The  Proto  -  Homeric  vases  of 
Athens — Pliny  on  the  priority  of  ancient  Egyptian  painting — Early  re- 
lations between  the  Pelasgic  Greeks  and  the  ancient  Egyptians  —  In- 
scription of  Sankhara  in  the  Valley  of  Hammamat — The  Greeks  in 
Egypt  under  the  Eighteenth  and  later  dynasties— Mr.  Petrie's  discover- 
ies at  Tell  Kahun  and  Tell  Gurob — Inscribed  potsherds  found  in  these 
mounds— Traces  of  Foreign  settlers  at  Gurob — The  Tursha  identified 
by  Lenormant  with  the  Etruscans — Etruscan  alphabetic  signs  at  Tell 
Gurob — Comparative  antiquity  of  the  earliest  Greek  alphabets — For- 
eign captives  in  Egypt  during  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  dynasties 
— Momentous  results  of  Mr.  Petrie's  discoveries— Special  characteristics 
of  the  Egyptian  School  of  figure-painting— The  "four  races"  of  men: 
the  typical  Syrian,  the  typical  Egyptian,  the  typical  Libyan,  the  typi- 
cal Ethiopian— The  tomb  of  Hui— The  Sardinian  in  Egyptian  art— The 
charioteer  of  the  "  pre-Homeric"  vases — Archaic  Greek  painted  ware  of 
Daphna; — Egyptian  conventionalities  reproduced  in  early  Greek  paint- 
ing—First appearance  of  the  Sphinx  in  Greek  art — The  Sphinx-plate  of 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Naukratis — The  wall-paintings  of  Etruria  ;  their  relations  to  ancient 
Egyptian  art — The  Cervetri  tomb  of  1889 — Etruscan  reproduction  of 
the  conventionalities  of  Egyptian  art — Genealogy  of  the  French  eagles 
— Discovery  of  the  laws  of  chiaroscuro  and  foreshortening  by  Apollo- 
dorus — The  Labyrinth  ;  its  destruction  by  the  Roman  Government — 
Excavations  by  Mr.  Petrie  on  the  site  of  the  Labyrinth — Ruins  of  the 
Roman  town  on  the  Labyrinth  platform — Mixed  character  of  its  ancient 
population — Successive  styles  of  mummification  practised  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  this  town — The  evolution  of  painting  on  panel  from  painted 
cartonnage  and  painted  canvas — Painting  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian— Reaction  of  Greek  art  upon  Egytian  art — Great  discovery  of 
panel- portraits  in  the  Fayum — Methods  employed  by  the  Graeco-Egyp- 
tian  portrait  painters  of  this  period — The  beeswax  medium  of  Egypt 
not  identical  with  the  "encaustic"  painting  of  the  Greeks — Pigments 
employed  by  Grasco-Egyptian  painters— Various  nationalities  depicted 
in  these  portraits — Egyptian  names  of  Greek  and  Roman  settlers — Se- 
ries of  portraits  of  Greeks,  Romans,  Syrians,  and  Egyptians— Styles  of 
jewelry  depicted  —  Diogenes,  the  flautist  —  The  elderly  Roman  — The 
lotus-bud  necklace  of  Etruria  an  ancient  Egyptian  design — Antiquity  of 
the  "  Oxford  pattern"  frame — Inequality  of  artistic  merit  in  the  Fayfim 
portraits— Singularly  modern  character  of  the  heads— Close  resemblance 
of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the  people  of  modern  Europe  and 
America — Unchanged  racial  types  of  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Palestine — 
Persistence  of  ancient  Egyptian  types Pages  70-112 

IV. 

THE   ORIGIN   OF   PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE,  AND   THE   HISTORY   OF   THE   KA. 

Our  interest  in  the  past  history  of  the  human  race — Great  value  of  the  art 
of  portraiture  as  preserved  to  us  in  the  sculptures  of  Assyria,  Babylon, 
Susa,  Persepolis,  and  ancient  Egypt— Ancient  Egyptian  portraiture  the 
most  ancient  in  the  world  —  Funerary  portrait-statues  of  the  Ancient 
Empire— Singular  custom  of  immuring  these  statues— Ancient  Egyp- 
tian notions  regarding  the  nature  of  man— The  Ka — Various  definitions 
of  the  Ka— Portraits  for  the  benefit  of  the  Ka— Tablet  of  Pepi-Na— 
Tablet  of  Napu — Voracious  appetite  of  the  Ka— Funerary  statues  and 
paintings  fashioned  for  the  benefit  of  the  Ka— The  Ka  identified  with 
the  life  —  The  three  names  of  the  Pharaohs  —  Sculptured  representa- 
tions of  the  Ka— Remarkable  tableaux  of  Amenhotep  III.  and  his  Ka 
in  the  Great  Temple  of  Luxor— Association  of  the  Kawith  the  "ankh" 
—Historical  sculptures  of  Seti  I.  and  his  Ka  on  the  walls  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Karnak— Invariable  inscription  accompanying  royal  Kas— 
Concrete  mode  of  thought  of  the  ancient  Egyptians— Reasons  why  the 
Ka  needed  food  and  drink  offerings  —  Greek  conception  of  life  bor- 
rowed from  Egyptian  sources— The  Hebrew  notion  of  the  "Khai,"or 


X  CONTENTS. 

"life,"  identical  with  the  Egyptian  Ka — Extreme  truth  to  nature  of 
Egyptian  Ka-statues — Egyptian  funerary  portrait-statues  carefully  stud- 
ied from  the  life — The  leading  schools  of  Egyptian  art — Great  superior- 
ity of  the  earliest  Egyptian  school  of  portraiture — The  oldest  historical 
portrait-statue  known — Group  of  Queen  Mertetefs,  her  Ka,  and  private 
secretary,  at  Ley  den — Semnefer  and  his  wife  —  General  Ra-hotep  and 
Princess  Nefert — The  "Wooden  Man"  of  Bfilak — Funerary  statue  of 
Ti — Admirable  anatomical  development  of  the  "Cross-legged  Scribe" 
—The  Memphite  School  represents  the  finest  period  of  Egyptian  por- 
traiture— Erroneous  estimate  commonly  formed  of  the  merits  of  Egyp- 
tian sculpture — Comparison  of  the  sculptures  of  ancient  Egypt  with 
those  of  ancient  Greece  —  The  Twelfth  Dynasty  school — The  Hyksos 
school — The  colossal  sitting  statues  of  Bubastis— The  Eighteenth  Dyn- 
asty school  —  Colossal  head  of  Queen  Hatasu  —  The  Nineteenth  and 
Twentieth  dynasties  register  a  new  phase  of  Egyptian  art— Semitic 
characteristics  of  this  school — Remarkable  family  likeness  of  the  Pha- 
raohs of  the  two  Ramesside  dynasties — Art  of  portraiture  in  wood,  as 
preserved  in  the  mummy-cases  of  this  time  —  Colossal  mummy-case  of 
Queen  Ahmes  Nefertari — Beautiful  mask  of  Rameses  II. — Probability 
that  this  mask  may  represent  Her-Hor Pages  113-157 

V. 

EGYPT  THEi  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART. 

The  irresistible  fascination  of  Egyptology — Ancient  Egyptian  civilization 
the  earliest  known — Extent  of  the  debt  of  the  early  Greeks  to  the  an- 
cient Egyptians — First  mention  of  the  Greeks  upon  the  monuments  of 
Egypt — The  "Hanebu" — The  Danseans  in  the  time  of  Thothmes  III. — 
The  earliest  portrait  of  a  Greek  in  the  world — Greeks  of  Thrace  and 
Asia  Minor,  in  alliance  with  the  Syrian  nations,  invade  Egypt  in  the  time 
of  Rameses  II. — Armor  of  the  Achaeans— The  Greek  greave  as  an  Egyp- 
tian hieroglyph — Carian  and  Ionian  Greek  troops  of  Psammetichus  I. 
— Daphnse  of  Pelusium,  an  early  Greek  settlement— Establishment  of 
Greek  traders  at  Naukratis — The  aesthetic  debt  of  Greece  to  Egypt — 
The  earliest  known  examples  of  Greek  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
decorative  design  copied  from  Egyptian  sources — Wall  and  ceiling  dec- 
oration of  the  rock- cut  tombs  of  Beni-Hasan — Spiral  ornament  of  My- 
cense — Spiral  of  Beni-Hasan — The  herz-blatt  and  key  patterns  of  Greece 
copied  from  Beni-Hasan  designs  —  The  ceiling  pattern  of  the  treas- 
ury of  Minyas  at  Orchomenos  —  This  pattern  reproduces  the  cornice 
patterns  of  Beni-Hasan — "Proto  Doric"  columns  of  the  Beni-Hasan 
tombs — Comparison  of  these  columns  with  Greek  Doric— Egyptian  ori- 
gin of  the  Ionic  capital — The  Ionic  capital  derived  from  the  lotus  of  the 
Nile — The  lotus  in  nature  and  the  lotus  in  art — The  conventional  lotus 
of  Egyptian  art — The  earliest  temple  known  to  belong  to  the  Ionic 


CONTENTS.  xi 

order  discovered  by  Mr.  Petrie  at  Naukratis— Egyptian  origin  of  the 
Anthemion  and  Palmette— Egyptian  origin  of  the  ' '  honeysuckle  "  pat- 
tern of  the  Greeks— Early  Greek  painted  vases  found  at  Daphnse— 
Florid  development  of  Egyptian  lotus  pattern  by  Greek  potters— The 
lotus  pattern  in  Greek  goldsmith's  work— Various  religious  conceptions 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  borrowed  by  the  Greeks— The  Egyptian  soul, 
or  Ba,  transformed  into  the  harpy  and  syren  of  Greek  art— Egyptian 
character  of  early  Greek  statues Pages  158-192 

VI. 

THE  LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

Literary  activity  not  a  necessary  result  of  the  possession  of  an  alphabet- 
Importance  of  a  material  on  which  to  write — Pastoral  and  literary  ten- 
dencies of  the  ancient  Egyptians— Great  antiquity  of  papyrus  as  a  writ- 
ing material — "The  oldest  book  in  the  world  "—Second  dynasty  tablet 
at  Oxford — Varied  character  of  ancient  Egyptian  literature— Greek  and 
Roman  papyri  found  in  Egypt— Homer  in  Egypt— No  contemporary 
history  of  ancient  Egypt  yet  discovered — The  lost  history  of  Manetho— 
Peculiar  characteristics  of  ancient  Egyptian  poetry — "Chant  of  Victory" 
of  Thothmes  III. — The  heroic  poem  of  Pentaur — This  poem  composed  in 
commemoration  of  the  victory  of  Rameses  II.  over  the  allied  forces  of 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor — Stratagem  of  the  Hittites — Brilliant  feat  of  arms 
of  Rameses  II. — The  battle  of  Kadesh— Poetic  treatment  of  the  facts  by 
Pentaur  —  Introduction  of  the  Deus  ex  machina  —  Literary  style  of  the 
poem — Its  reproduction  on  the  walls  of  various  great  temples  in  Egypt — 
A  copy  on  papyrus  in  the  British  Museum — Great  tableau  of  the  battle 
of  Kadesh  at  Abu-Simbel  —  Curious  incident  of  the  drowning  of  the 
Prince  of  Aleppo — The  scientific  literature  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — 
Its  value  purely  archaeological — Astronomical  observations  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians — Their  knowledge  of  the  movement  of  the  earth — Math- 
ematical papyri  —  Medical  papyri  —  The  Ebers  medical  papyrus — Un- 
pleasant character  of  ancient  Egyptian  pharmacopaeia —  The  moral 
philosophy  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — The  maxims  of  Ptah-hotep — The 
maxims  of  the  scribe  Ani — Romantic  literature  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians— Egyptian  origin  of  ^Esop's  fables,  and  of  various  well-known 
popular  tales — The  story  of  Rhodopis — The  tale  of  the  two  brothers— 
The  taking  of  Joppa—  The  doomed  prince — The  shipwrecked  mariner — 
Historic  characters  introduced  into  ancient  Egyptian  fiction — Popular 
poetry  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — A  love  song — Threshing  song  from 
the  tomb  of  Pahiri — The  religion  of  ancient  Egypt— Its  obscurity  and 
diversity — Religions  of  various  periods — Was  monotheism  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  religion? — Theories  of  M. 
Pierret  and  Dr.  Brugsch— Barbaric  origin  of  the  ancient  Egyptians— 
The  prehistoric  Egyptians  and  the  North  American  Indians— The  "to- 


xii  CONTENTS. 

terns  "of  the  North  American  Indians  —  Importance  of  a  tribal  name 
among  barbaric  and  semi-civilized  communities  —  Totemism  common 
to  all  quarters  of  the  globe — Totemism  the  origin  of  animal  worship — 
Totemism  of  the  prehistoric  Egyptians — Subsequent  evolution  of  the 
Egyptian  religion — Exalted  pantheism  of  Ra-worship — Local  character 
of  the  monotheism  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — Great  local  deities  identi- 
fied one  with  another — The  ancient  Egyptians  the  first  people  to  recog- 
nize the  immortality  of  the  soul — "The  negative  confession" — Ancient 
Egyptian  standard  of  morality Pages  193-238 

VII. 

THE   HIEROGLYPHIC   WRITING  OP   THE   ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS. 

A  new  definition  of  the  genus  homo — The  infancy  of  writing  and  the  in- 
fancy of  language — Limited  vocabulary  of  prehistoric  man — Writing  a 
spontaneous  growth — The  beginnings  of  writing  everywhere  the  same 
— Picture-writing  —  The  picture-writing  of  the  Hittites,  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Chinese — The  origin  of  picture-writing — Message  of  the 
Scythians  to  Darius — Object-writing  the  natural  predecessor  of  picture- 
writing — Picture-writing  of  Mexico — The  tribute-lists  of  the  Mexican 
kings  —  General  picture-written  literature  of  the  Mexicans  —  Picture- 
writing  of  the  North  American  Indians— A  petition  of  certain  Indian 
chiefs — Incised  sketches  and  bone  drawings  of  prehistoric  times — Pre- 
historic Egypt — The  age  of  the  "  Horshesu  "  the  probable  age  of  Egyp- 
tian picture-writing — Successive  stages  of  Egyptian  writing — Ideogra- 
phy  —  Pictorial  phonetism  —  Monosyllabic  character  of  the  earliest 
Egyptian  vocabulary — Common  objects  of  daily  life  the  origin  of  hiero- 
glyphic characters— Transition  from  pictorial  phonetism  to  alphabetism 
—Immense  antiquity  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  alphabet — This  alphabet 
the  parent  stock  of  all  the  alphabets  of  Europe — The  way  in  which  the 
alphabet  was  formed — The  hieroglyphic  alphabet  as  commonly  in  use 
— Conservatism  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — Egyptian  spelling — Alpha- 
betism in  common  with  ideography — Determinating  hieroglyphs  —  De 
terminatives  of  sound  —  Determinatives  of  sense — Generic  determina- 
tives— The  great  number  and  variety  of  hieroglyphic  signs — Pictorial 
character  of  hieroglyphic  signs — Their  archaeological  and  scientific  value 
— Part  played  by  the  human  figure  in  the  hieroglyphic  system — The 
study  of  hieroglyphs — Its  facilities  and  difficulties— Perplexing  sim- 
plicity of  ancient  Egyptian  thought — Hieroglyphs  relating  to  the  sky, 
night,  day,  rain,  and  the  like,  with  their  esoteric  meanings — The  hiero- 
glyph for  "  land,"  and  its  interpretation — Survival  of  ancient  Egyptian 
words  in  European  languages — Ancient  name  of  Egypt  in  hierogtyphs 
—  Hieroglyphic  spellings  of  various  words  in  common  use  —  Other 
scripts  in  use  by  the  ancient  Egyptians — Necessity  for  a  cursive  writ- 
ing—The hieratic  script  an  abridgment  of  the  hieroglyphic— Charac- 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

teristics  of  the  hieratic  at  various  periods  —  The  demotic  script — The 
demotic  script  an  abridgment  of  the  hieratic  —  Great  wealth  of  Euro- 
pean museums  in  demotic  documents — Classification  of  the  three  writ- 
ings of  the  Egyptians  —  Obscure  origin  of  the  Egyptian  language — 
The  Egyptian  language  a  member  of  the  Khamitic  family  of  tongues 
— The  Khamitic  and  Semitic  languages  derived  from  a  common  pre- 
historic parent — The  Egyptian  verb  as  described  by  Mr.  Le  Page  Re- 
nou Pages  234-260 

VIII. 

QUEEN  HATASU,  AND  HER  EXPEDITION  TO  THE  LAND  OP  PUNT. 

Queen  Hatasu — Her  birth  and  parentage— Important  historical  inscriptions 
at  Karnak — Accession  of  Queen  Hatasu  during  her  father's  lifetime — 
Throne-name  of  Hatasu — Her  marriage  to  Thothmes  II. — Recent  dis- 
covery by  M.  Grebaut  of  the  chapel  of  Prince  Uatmes — The  mothers  of 
Thothmes  II.  and  Thothmes  III. — Incorrectness  of  the  assumption  that 
Hatasu  was  a  usurper  —  Hatasu  as  Pharaoh  —  Profound  peace  during 
her  reign — Her  works  of  building  and  restoration — Obelisks  of  Hatasu 
at  Karnak — Great  temple  of  Hatasu  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile — 
Novelty  of  its  design — Sen-Maut  the  architect — Restoration  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Dayr-el-Bahari  by  M.  Brune — The  chamber  of  the  cow  at  Dayr- 
el-Bahari  —  Portrait  of  Queen  Hatasu  as  a  young  prince  —  Hatasu  de- 
spatches a  maritime  expedition  to  the  land  of  Punt — This  expedition 
depicted  on  the  walls  of  her  temple  at  Dayr-el-Bahari — Construction  of 
the  vessels  built  for  this  expedition — Strength  of  the  expedition — Prob- 
able route  taken  by  the  exploring  squadron — The  ancient  canal  in  the 
Wady  Tumilat  probably  constructed  by  Hatasu — Arrival  of  the  squad- 
ron— Gifts  of  Queen  Hatasu  to  the  Prince  of  Punt  —  The  Princess  of 
Punt  and  her  personal  peculiarities  —  The  odoriferous  sycamores  of 
Punt — Pliny's  description  of  the  myrrh-tree  of  "the  land  of  the  Troglo- 
dytes "—Identity  of  this  tree  with  the  "Ana-sycamore  " — Landing  of  the 
Egyptian  ships  with  sycamore  saplings,  ivory,  ebony,  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  Punt— Banquet  offered  to  the  Prince  of  Punt  by  the  royal  En- 
voy— Return  of  the  squadron,  to  Thebes— Processional  subjects  depicted 
in  these  tableaux:  the  procession  from  the  ships,  the  procession  of  wel- 
come, the  procession  of  the  Queen,  sacrifice  in  the  temple  of  Amen  at 
Karnak,  solemn  visit  of  the  naval  expedition  to  the  temple  of  Dayr- 
el-Bahari— Close  of  the  reign  of  Hatasu  wrapped  in  obscurity — Whole- 
sale forgeries  of  Thothmes  III. — Discovery  of  the  tomb  of  Hatasu  by 
Mr.  Rhind  — Extant  relics  of  Queen  Hatasu —  Throne-chair  of  Queen 
Hatasu..  261-300 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Portrait — Miss  Amelia  B.  Edwards Frontispiece 

A  Canal  in  the  Delta.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  3 
Wig  of  Princess  Nesikhonsu.  [From  a  photograph.] ....  ,5 

Tell  Nebesheh.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  ...  15 
Tell-el-Yahvldieh.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  19 
Tell  Nebireh.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  ....  21 

Archaic  Head  (Cypriote  type).  [From  a  photograph.] 23 

Plan  of  Naukratis.  [From  the  plan  made  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  25 
Foundation  Deposits  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (286-274  B.C.),  Nau- 
kratis. [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  .  .  .27 

Archaic  Statuette,  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.] 29 

Terra-cotta  Head  of  Aphrodite,  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.]  .  .  31 

Votive  Bowl,  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.] 33 

Votive  Bowl,  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.] 34 

Gorgoneia,  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.] 35 

Village  of  San  (Tanis).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  37 

Plan  of  Pithom.  [From  the  plan  made  by  M.  Naville.] 41 

Tell-el-Masklmtah.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  43 
The  Store-cellars  of  Pithom.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 45 

Colossal  Statue  of  Mermashiu.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 47 

Plan  of  the  Ruins  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Tanis.  [From  the  plan 

made  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] '.  .  49 

Shrine  of  Rameses  II.  (Tanis).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 51 

Toes  of  Great  Colossus.  [From  a  sketch.] 54 

Group  of  Miscellaneous  Objects  (Tanis).  [From  a  photograph.]  ...  55 
Objects  from  the  House  of  Bakakhiu.  [From  a  photograph.]  ...  59 
Ruins  of  the  Sanctuary  (Tanis).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 61 

Tell  Defenneh.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  .65 
Cellar  in  the  House  of  Bakakhiu.  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  Tristram 

Ellis.] : 69 

Ploughing  Scene.  [From  an  Egyptian  bas-relief.] 70 


xvi  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Turn 81 

The  Typical  Syrian  of  Egyptian  Art.     [From  a  photogr  iph  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.]    .     . 82 

The  Typical  Libyan  of  Egyptian  Art.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr. 

W.  M.  F.  Pctrie.] 83 

Procession  of  Ethiopians.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  85 
The  Typical  Sardinian  of  Egyptian  Art.  [From  a  sketch.]  ....  86 
Greek  Charioteer,  archaic  style.  [From  a  proto-Homeric  vase.]  .  .  87 
Obsequies  of  a  Greek  Hero,  archaic  style.  [From  a  proto-Homeric 

vase.] '. 88 

Greek  Dancing-girl.  [From  a  fragment  of  Daphniote  ware.]  ...  89 
(Edipus  and  the  Sphinx.  [From  a  fragment  of  Daphuiote  ware.]  .  .  90 

Plate  with  Winged  Sphinx.     [From  a  photograph.] 91 

Group  of  Etruscan  Figures.  [From  a  painted  slab  found  at  Cervetri.]  93 
The  Site  of  the  Labyrinth.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 95 

Panel-portrait,  a  Young  Greek.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  "W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 97 

Panel-portrait,,  an  Egyptian  Boy.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 98 

Panel-portrait,  a  Greek  Lady.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] , 99 

Panel-portrait,  an  Egyptian  Lady.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 100 

Panel-portrait,  Diogenes  the  Flautist.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 101 

Panel-portrait,  a  Roman.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  102 
Panel-portrait,  a  Young  Greek.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Pietrie.] 103 

Panel-portrait,  a  Roman  Lady.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 104 

Panel-portrait,  a  Romano -Egyptian  Lady.      [From  a  photograph  by 

Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 105 

Panel  -  portrait,  a   Student.      [From   a  photograph  by   Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 106 

Panel -portrait,  a  Gladiator.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 107 

Panel-portrait,  a  Young  Lady.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 109 

Panel-portrait,  a  Young  Boy.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] Ill 

The  Great  Sphinx.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .     .  113 

Funerary  Offerings.     [From  an  Egyptian  wall-painting.] 121 

Nemhotep.     [From  Maspei'o's  Archeologie  Egyptienne.} 132 

Khufu-Ankh  and  Servants.      [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] .136 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  XVJi 

Semnefer  and  Hotep-hers,  his  Wife.     [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 137 

Ra-hotep  and  Nefert.  [From  Edvvards's  A  Thousand  Miles  up  tlie  Nile.]  138 
Ra-em-ka  ("The  Wooden  Man").  [From  a  photograph  by  Bruarsch- 

Bey.] 139 

Ti.  [From  Maspero's  Archeologie  Egypiicnne.~\ 141 

The  Kneeling  Scribe 142 

The  Cross-legged  Scribe.  [From  Perrot  and  Chipiez's  Egyptc.~]  .  .  .  143 
Colossal  Head  of  Amenemhat  I.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 144 

Colossal  Head  of  a  Ilyksos  King.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

F.  Petrie.] 145 

Hyksos  Sphinx  (profile).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  AV.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  140 
Hyksos  Sphinxes  of  Tanis.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 147 

Colossal  Head,  Queen  Hatasu.  [From  Perrot  and  Chipiez's  Er/ypte.]  .  148 
Head  of  Rameses  II.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  149 
Rameses  II.  (profile).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  150 
Seti  II.  (profile).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .151 
Siptah  (profile).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  .  .  .152 
Rameses  III.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.]  ....  158 
Mummy-case  of  Queen  Ahmes  Nefcrtari.  [From  a  photograph  by 

Brugsch-Bey.] 154 

Mask  from  Mummy -case  of  Rameses  II.  [From  a  photograph  by 

Brugsch-Bey.] 156 

Ra-em-ka 157 

Greek  Potter  modelling  a  Vase.  [From  a  vase-painting.] 158 

Profile  of  Hanebu  Woman.  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] .161 

Egyptian  Hieroglyph  for  a  Greek  Greave 104 

Decorated  Column,  Mycenae.  [From  Reber's  Ancient  Art.]  ....  169 
Spiral  and  Rosette  Design.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The  Ionic 

Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 170 

Rosette  and  Key-pattern.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The  Ionic 

Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 170 

Examples  of  Herz-blatl  Pattern.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The 

Ionic  Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 171 

Rosette,  Spiral,  and  Lotus.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The  Ionic 

Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 172 

Cornice  Designs  (Beni- Hasan).  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The 

Ionic  Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 172 

Proto- Doric  Columns  (Beni -Hasan).  [From  Maspero's  Archeologie 

Egyptienne.] 178 

Examples  of  Doric  Columns 174 

Temple  of  Thothmes  III.  (Karnak).  [From  Maspero's  Archeologie 

Egyptienne.] •         •  175 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Lotus  Leaf  Design.  [From  Marietta's  Mastabahs  de  I'Ancienne  Empire.']  176 
Natural  Lotus.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  "The  Ionic  Capital  and 

the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."] 177 

Conventional  Lotus  of  Egyptian  Art.  [From  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's 

"The  Ionic  Capital  and  the  Origin  of  the  Anthemion."]  ....  178 
Example  of  Grecian  Ionic.  [From  Ferguson's  History  of  Architecture.]  179 
Architectural  Fragments  from  Archaic  Temple  of  Apollo  (Naukratis). 

[From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 181 

Architectural  Fragments  from  the  Second  Temple  of  Apollo  (Naukratis). 

[From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 181 

Egyptian  Vase  with  Inverted  Lotus  Design.  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 182 

Archaic  Gneco-Egyptian  Vase.  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 182 

Archaic  Gra?co  Egyptian  Vase.  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 183 

Example  of  Lotus  and  Bud  (Naukratis).  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 184 

Gold  Tray -handle  (Defenneh).  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 185 

Mummy  and  "Ba."  [Vignette  from  an  Egyptian  Ritual.]  ....  187 
Greek  Harpy.  [From  a  fragment  of  Daphniote  painted  ware.]  .  .  .  188 
Greek  Harpy.  [From  a  photograph  of  the  Harpy-  tomb  of  Xanthus.]  188 

Odysseus  and  the  Sirens.  [From  a  vase-painting.] 189 

The  Archaic  Apollo  (Thera).  [From  a  photograph.] 190 

The  Archaic  Apollo  of  Naukratis.  [From  a  photograph.]  ....  191 
Female  Winged  Sphinx  of  Greek  Art.  [From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 192 

Head-piece 193 

Camp  of  Rameses  II.  [After  Rossellini.] 203 

Syrian  Spies  Arrested  and  Bastinadoed.  [After  Rossellini.]  ....  204 

Pharaoh's  War-chariot.  [After  Rossellini.] 206 

Rameses  Slaughtering  the  Hittites.  [After  Rossellini.] 207 

The  Battle  of  Kadesh.  [After  Rossellini.] 209 

Brigade  of  Egyptian  Infantry  on  the  March.  [After  Rossellini.]  .  .  210 

Egyptian  Attack  on  Hittite  Chariot.  [After  Rossellini.] 211 

Fac-simile  of  the  Opening  Lines  of  the  Poem  of  Pentaur 212 

M61ee  of  Chariots.  [After  Rossellini.] 213 

War-chariots  setting  out.  [After  Rossellini.] 213 

After  the  Battle.  [After  Rossellini.] 214 

Rameses  Enthroned.  [After  Rossellini.] 215 

The  Prince  of  Aleppo  (Ramesseum).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 216 

Ancient  Egyptian  Pen -drawing.  [From  a  vignette  in  a  funerary 

papyrus.] 233 

Bas  relief  Slab  of  Second  Dynasty.  [From  a  photograph.]  ....  234 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 


Indian  Petition.  [From  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  History  of  Civilization.}  .  .  238 
Prehistoric  Bone-carving  (The  Mammoth).  [From  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  His- 
tory of  Civilisation.]  240 

Ancient  Egyptian  Hoe,  Adze-handle,  and  Sickle.  [After  drawings  by 

Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] ".043 

The  Hieroglyphic  Alphabet 345 

Hieratic  Papyrus  of  Princess  Nesikhonsu.  [From  a  photograph  by 

Brugsch-Bey.] 257 

Example  of  Demotic  Writing.  [From  a  funerary  tablet.] 258 

Thoth,  the  Egyptian  God  of  Letters.  [From  an  Egyptian  bas-relief.]  260 

Head-piece 261 

Sitting  Statue  of  Queen  Hatasu.  [From  a  photograph.] 265 

Profile  of  Hatasu.  [From  the  fallen  Obelisk,  Karnak.]  - 271 

Temple  of  Hatasu  (Dayr-el-Bahari).  [From  the  restoration  by  M. 

Brune.] 272 

Hathor-head  Capital  (Dayr-el-Bahari).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W. 

M.  F.  Petrie.] 273 

Hatasu  and  Hathor  (the  Divine  Cow).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie.] 275 

Ancient  Egyptian  Ship.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.]  ....  277 

Map  of  Africa 279 

A  Village  in  Punt.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.] 282 

Hatasu's  Envoy.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.] 283 

The  Prince  of  Punt  and  his  Family.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.]  284 
A  Chief  of  Punt  (Karnak).  [From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie.] 286 

Transport  of  "Ana"  Saplings.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.}  .  .  287 
The  Prince  of  Punt  presenting  Farewell  Gifts  to  the  Egyptian  Envoy. 

[From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.} 289 

Lading  of  the  Egyptian  Ships.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.}  .  .  290 
Tributaries  of  Punt  Walking  in  Procession  to  the  Temple  of  Amen. 

[From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.} 292 

Procession  of  Hatasu.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.} 293 

Hatasu's  Throne-chair  carried  by  Twelve  Bearers.  [From  Mariette's 

Deir-el-Bahari.} 293 

Hatasu  Receiving  her  Troops.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.}  .  .  294 

Sacrifice  in  the  Temple  of  Amen.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.}  .  294 

Measuring  the  "Ana"  of  Punt.  [From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.]  .  .  295 
Throne-chair  of  Queen  Hatasu.  [From  a  photograph  of  the  original 

in  the  British  Museum.] 298 

Little  Cabinet  of  Queen  Hatasu.  [From  a  photograph  by  Brugsch-Bey.]  300 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 

IT  may  be  said  of  some  very  old  places,  as 
of  some  very  old  books,  that  they  are  des- 
tined to  be  -forever  new.  The  nearer  we 
approach  them,  the  more  remote  they  seem ; 
the  more  we  study  them,  the  more  we  have 
yet  to  learn.  Time  augments  rather  than 
diminishes  their  everlasting  novelty;  and  to 
our  descendants  of  a  thousand  years  hence 
it  may  safely  be  predicted  that  they  will  be  even 
more  fascinating  than  to  ourselves.  This  is  true  of 
many  ancient  lands,  but  of  no  place  is  it  so  true  as 
of  Egypt.  Our  knowledge  of  how  men  lived  and  thought  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Nile  live  or  six  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era  is  ever  on  the  increase.  It  keeps  pace  with  the 
march  of  discovery,  and  that  march  extends  every  year  over 
a  wider  area.  Each  season  beholds  the  exploration  of  new 


4  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

sites,  and  each  explorer  has  some  new  thing  to  tell.  What 
Mariette  began  thirty  years  ago,  Maspero  carried  on  and 
developed ;  and  it  was  to  Maspero's  wise  liberality  that  the 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund  was  indebted,  in  1883,  for  liberty 
to  pursue  its  work  in  the  Delta.  In  that  year  the  society 
despatched  its  first  agent — M.  Naville — upon  its  first  expedi- 
tion ;  and  since  1883  the  French  in  Upper  Egypt,  the  Eng- 
lish in  Lower  Egypt,  have  labored  simultaneously  to  bring 
to  light  the  buried  wealth  of  the  most  ancient  of  nations. 
Thus  the  work  of  discovery  goes  on  apace.  Old  truths  re- 
ceive unexpected  corroboration ;  old  histories  are  judged  by 
the  light  of  new  readings ;  fresh  wonders  are  disclosed  wher- 
ever the  spade  of  the  digger  strikes  new  ground.  The  in- 
terest never  flags — the  subject  never  palls  upon  us — the  mine 
is  never  exhausted. 

I  will  go  yet  further,  and  say  that  this  mine  is  practi- 
cally inexhaustible.  Consider,  for  instance,  the  incredible 
number  and  riches  of  the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt,  and  the 
immense  population  of  the  Nile  Valley  in  the  times  of  the 
Pharaohs.  That  immense  population  continued  during  a  pe- 
riod of  between  four  and  five  thousand  years  to  embalm  and 
secrete  their  dead,  interring  with  them,  according  to  the 
customs  of  successive  epochs,  funerary  statues,  vases,  weap- 
ons, amulets,  inscribed  tablets,  jewels,  furniture,  food,  stuffs ; 
articles  of  apparel,  such  as  sandals,  combs,  hair-pins,  and  even 
wigs ;  implements,  and  written  documents  on  papyrus,  leath- 
er, and  linen.  Conceive,  then,  what  must  be  the  number  of 
those  sepulchres,  of  those  mummies,  of  those  buried  treasures ! 
The  cemeteries  of  Thebes  and  Memphis  and  Abydos  have  en- 
riched all  the  museums  of  Europe,  and  are  not  yet  worked 
out.  The  unopened  mounds  of  Middle  and  Lower  Egypt, 
and  the  unexplored  valleys  of  the  Libyan  range,  undoubt- 
edly conceal  tens  of  thousands  of  tombs  which  yet  await  the 
scientific,  or  unscientific,  plunderer. 

The  late  Dr.  Birch — a  cautious  man,  and  the  last  man  in 
the  world  to  exaggerate — estimated  the  number  of  corpses 
embalmed  during  two  thousand  seven  hundred  years  at  no 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT.  5 

less  than  420,000,000.  But  recent  discoveries  ( ' )  compel  us  to 
assign  4700  instead  of  2700  years  for  the  observance  of  this 
rite ;  which,  calculated  after  the  same  rate,  brings  us  to  a 
gigantic  total  of  731,000,000 
of  mummies.  The  majority 
of  these  were,  of  course, 
mere  slaves  and  peasants, 
rudely  embalmed  and  buried 
in  common  graves ;  but  even 
so,  we  may  be  very  certain 
that  the  time  can  never  come 
when  quarried  rock  and 
drifted  sand  shall  have  yield- 
ed all  the  noble  and  wealthy 
dead,  and  all  their  riches. 
The  Greek,  the  Koman,  the 
mediaeval  Arab,  the  modern 
Arab,  the  Copt,  the  Turk, 
and  the  European  archaeolo- 
gist have  ravaged  the  soil, 
but  the  harvest  is  still  un- 
diminished ;  and  although 
"  mummy  was  sold  for  bal- 
sam" in  Sir  Thomas 
Browne's  day,  and  has  been 
exported  for  manure  in  our 
own,(2)  there  are  probably 

at  this  moment  more  ancient  Egyptians  under  the  soil  of 
Egypt  than  there  are  living  men  and  women  above  it. 

It  has  been  aptly  said  that  all  Egypt  is  but  the  facade  of 
an  immense  sepulchre.  This  is  literally  true ;  for  the  ter- 
raced cliffs  that  hem  in  the  Nile  to  east  and  west,  and  the 
rocky  bed  of  the  desert  beneath  our  feet,  are  everywhere 
honey-combed  with  tombs.  But  this  is  not  all.  The  very 
towns  in  which  those  vanished  generations  lived  their  busy 
lives,  the  houses  in  which  they  dwelt,  the  temples  in  which 
they  worshipped,  are  as  much  entombed  as  their  former  in- 


PRINCESS   NESIKHOXSU'S   WIG. 

This  curious  object,  now  in  the  National 
Egyptian  Museum  at  Gliizeh,  is  one  of 
several  similar  wigs  buried  with  the 
mummy  of  Princess  Nesikhonsu,  a 
royal  lady  of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty, 
whose  mortal  remains  and  personal 
adornments  were  discovered  in  1881, 
in  the  famous  vault  of  the  Priest 
Kings  at  Dayr-el-Bahari.  Each  wig 
was  enclosed  in  a  little  hamper  of 
plaited  palm-fibre. 


t)  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

habitants.  What  the  ancient  Egyptians  did  for  their  dead, 
Time  has  done  for  their  cities.  All  who  run  and  read  have 
heard  of  the  mounds  of  Memphis,  of  Bubastis,  of  Tanis,  and 
of  other  famous  capitals ;  but  few  have,  perhaps,  any  very 
distinct  idea  of  how  these  mounds  came  to  be  formed,  or  even 
of  what  they  are  like.  To  what  shall  I  compare  them  ?  I  can 
think  of  nothing  which  even  distantly  resembles  them  unless 
it  be  an  ant-hill.  These  giant  ant-hills  are  scattered  all  over 
the  face  of  the  country,  and  thickest  of  all  in  the  Delta.  They 
are  the  first  objects  that  excite  the  traveller's  curiosity  when 
he  turns  his  back  upon  Alexandria  and  his  face  towards 
Cairo.  He  looks  out  of  the  window  of  the  railway  carriage, 
and  yonder,  a  mile  or  so  off  in  the  midst  of  the  cotton-fields, 
he  sees  a  huge,  irregular  brown  tumulus,  some  fifty  or  sixty 
feet  in  height,  perfectly  bare  of  vegetation,  which  looks  as 
if  it  might  cover  fifteen  or  twenty  acres  of  ground.  This 
strange  apparition  is  no  sooner  left  behind  than  two  or  three 
more,  some  smaller,  some  larger,  come  into  sight ;  and  so  on 
all  the  way  to  Cairo.  At  first  he  can  scarcely  believe  that 
each  contains  the  dead  bones  of  an  ancient  town.  When  he 
comes  to  travel  farther  and  know  the  country  better,  he  dis- 
covers^ that  these  mounds  are  to  be  reckoned  not  by  scores 
but  by  hundreds.  So  numerous  are  they  that  many  a  dis- 
trict of  the  Delta,  if  modelled  in  relief,  might  be  taken  for  a 
raised  map  of  some  volcanic  centre,  such  as  the  chain  of  the 
Puy  de  Dome,  in  Auvergne. 

Some  mounds  are  of  great  extent.  The  mounds  of  Tanis, 
for  instance,  cover  no  less  than  forty  acres ;  but  then  Tanis 
(better  known,  perhaps,  by  its  scriptural  name,  Zoan)  was 
a  very  important  city,  and  more  than  once  was  the  chosen 
capital  of  the  empire.  Others  are  so  small  that  they  can 
scarcely  represent  anything  but  hamlets  or  fortified  posts. 

But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  have  these  places,  instead  of  fall- 
ing into  heaps  of  ruin,  become  converted  into  mounds  ?  Foi 
the  simple  reason  that  the  material  of  which  they  were  con- 
structed was  mere  earth,  and  so  to  earth  they  have  returned. 
Like  the  Arab  fellah  of  the  present  day,  the  Egyptian  of 


THE  EXPLORER  IN   EGYPT.  7 

five  or  six  thousand  years  ago  built  his  house  of  mud  bricks 
mixed  with  a  little  chopped  straw,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
houses  of  the  rich — built  of  the  same  material — were  plas- 
tered and  stuccoed,  the  walls  and  ceilings  being  decorated 
with  elaborate  polychrome  designs,  and  the  exterior  relieved 
by  light  wooden  colonnades  and  balconies.  The  huts  of  the 
poor  were  much  the  same  as  they  are  now — mere  beehives 
of  brown  clay,  which  crumble  slowly  away  in  dry  weather, 
and  melt  if  it  rains.  Easily  built  and  easily  replaced,  they 
were  constantly  falling  out  of  repair,  being  levelled  to  the 
ground,  trodden  down,  and  rebuilt.  Thus,  each  new  house 
rose  upon  the  ruins  of  the  old  one ;  and  every  time  the  proc- 
ess was  repeated,  a  higher  elevation  was  obtained  for  the 
foundation.  In  a  country  subject  to  annual  inundation  this 
in  itself  was  an  important  advantage ;  and  so,  in  the  course  of 
ages,  what  was  probably  a  mere  rising  ground  when  first  the 
town  was  founded,  became  a  lofty  hill,  visible  for  miles  across 
the  plain. 

Rightly  to  understand  what  I  will  venture  to  call  the  geo- 
logical strata  of  an  Egyptian  mound,  it  is,  however,  necessary 
to  have  some  idea  of  the  processes  of  its  growth  and  decay. 
These  processes  were  everywhere  the  same ;  and  if  I  attempt 
to  sketch  the  history  of  a  typical  site,  it  must  at  the  same 
time  be  remembered  that  my  description  represents  no  one 
mound  in  particular,  but  that  it  applies,  in  a  general  sense, 
to  all. 

We  will  suppose  our  typical  mound  to  be  situate  in  the 
Delta — possibly  in  the  old  Land  of  Goshen — and  we  will  in 
imagination  go  back  to  that  distant  time  when  as  yet  the 
site  was  a  mere  barren  sand-hill  rising  some  twenty  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  soil.  Thesa  sand -hillocks  are  the 
last  visible  vestiges  of  the  old  ocean-bed  which  underlies  the 
whole  of  the  Delta,  beginning  at  Kalyub,  about  ten  miles 
below  Cairo,  and  widening  out  like  a  gigantic  fan  to  Alex- 
andria on  the  western  coast,  to  Damietta  on  the  east.  Now, 
the  entire  Delta  is  one  vast  deposit  of  mud  annually  brought 
down  by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the  course  of 


8  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

ages  this  mud  has  driven  the  sea  back  inch  by  inch,  foot  by 
foot,  for  a  distance  of  more  than  one  hundred  miles.  These 
sand-hills,  which  were  formerly  under  the  sea,  are  called  by 
the  Arabs  "  Gezireh,"  or  islands ;  and  they  were  naturally 
resorted  to  by  the  earliest  nomadic  tribes  as  places  of  refuge 
for  themselves  and  their  flocks  during  the  season  of  the 
inundation.  For  the  same  reason,  they  became  the  sites  of 
the  first  settlements.  Every  ancient  ruin,  every  mound,  every 
modern  town  and  village  in  the  Delta  rests  on  a  sandy  emi- 
nence which  once  upon  a  time  was  covered  by  the  blue 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Here,  then,  on  an  irregular  platform  of  yellow  sand  sur- 
rounded by  rich  pastures  in  winter  and  summer,  and  by  tur- 
bid floods  in  autumn,  a  few  half-barbarous  shepherds  erect 
their  primitive  huts  of  wattle  and  daub ;  and  here  they  set 
up  a  rude  altar,  consisting  probably  of  a  single  upright 
stone  brought  with  much  labor  and  difficulty  from  the  near- 
est point  of  the  eastern  or  western  cliffs.  By-and-by,  they 
or  their  descendants  enclose  that  altar  in  a  little  mud-built 
shrine  roofed  over  with  palm  branches,  and  wall  in  a  sur- 
rounding space  of  holy  ground. 

As  the  centuries  roll  on,  this  first  rude  sanctuary  gives 
place  to  a  more  ambitious  structure  built  of  stone ;  and  to 
this  structure  successive  generations  add  court-yards,  porti- 
cos, colonnades,  gate- ways,  obelisks,  and  statues  in  such  num- 
ber that  by  the  time  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty — that  is  to 
say,  about  the  time  of  the  Oppression  and  the  Exodus — the 
temple  covers  an  area  as  large  as  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  In 
the  meanwhile,  the  level  of  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  town 
has  been  steadily  rising,  and  the  crude -brick  dwellings  of 
the  townsfolk— upraised  like  a  coral-reef  by  the  perpetual 
deposition  of  building  -  rubbish — have  attained  so  great  an 
elevation  that  the  temple  actually  stands  in  a  deep  hollow 
in  the  middle  of  the  city,  as  if  erected  in  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  great  Temple  of 
Bubastis  when  visited  by  Herodotus  in  the  fifth  century  before 
Christ ;  and  such,  to  this  day,  is  the  condition  of  the  magnifi- 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT.  9 

cent  Temple  of  Edfu,  excavated  twenty  years  ago  by  Mariette. 
Here  the  mound  has  been  cut  away  all  round  the  building, 
which  stands  on  the  paved  level  of  the  ancient  city,  forty  feet 
below  the  spot  from  which  one  first  looks  down  upon  it. 

"We  have  thus  far  traced  the  history  of  our  typical  mound 
from  its  first  rude  beginnings  to  the  apex  of  its  prosperity. 
As  time  goes  on,  however,  and  the  last  native  Dynasties  ex- 
pire, the  trade  of  the  community  languishes,  the  population 
dwindles,  and  the  temple  falls  out  of  repair.  Then  comes 
the  prosperous  period  of  Greek  rule.  Commerce  and  letters 
revive,  and  the  Ptolemies  repair  the  temple,  or  perhaps  re- 
build it.  Next  comes  the  Eoman  period,  closely  followed  by 
the  introduction  of  Christianity ;  and  by-and-by,  when  the 
national  religion  is  proscribed,  a  community  of  Coptic  monks 
take  possession  of  the  grand  old  building,  converting  its 
chambers  into  cells,  and  its  portico  into  a  Christian  church. 
The  town  now  overflows  into  what  was  once  the  sacred 
area.  Mud  huts  are  plastered  between  sculptured  walls  and 
painted  columns,  and  the  ground  begins  to  rise  in  and 
about  the  temple  as  formerly  it  had  risen  outside  the  en- 
closure. Ere  long  the  monks,  weary  of  living  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  pit,  proceed  to  erect  a  new  monastery  in  one  of 
the  suburbs.  The  temple,  therefore,  is  partly  pulled  down 
for  building  material ;  and  its  desecrated  ruins,  which  now 
constitute  the  poorest  and  most  crowded  quarter  of  the  city, 
become  gradually  choked  within  and  without.  At  last, 
even  the  roof  is  converted  into  a  maze  of  huts  and  stables 
swarming  with  human  beings,  poultry,  dogs,  kine,  asses, 
pigeons,  and  vermin.  Thus,  in  process  of  time,  the  whole 
building  becomes  buried,  and  its  very  site  is  forgotten.  A 
few  centuries  later  the  town  is  devastated  by  some  great 
calamity  of  plague  or  war,  and,  after  an  existence  of  perhaps 
five  thousand  years,  is  finally  deserted.  Then  the  crude- 
brick  shells  of  its  latest  habitations  crumble  away,  and 
what  was  once  a  busy  city  clustered  round  a  splendid  tem- 
ple, ends  by  becoming  a  heap  of  desolate,  unsightly  mounds 
strewn  with  innumerable  potsherds. 


10  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Such  are  the  constituent  parts  of  my  typical  mound ;  and 
all  the  mounds  of  Egypt  are  but  variations  upon  this  one 
original  theme. 

A  mound  is  a  concrete  piece  of  history ;  and,  given  the 
date  of  its  first  and  last  chapters,  nothing  is  easier  than  to 
predict  what  may  be  found  in  it.  Let  us  now  excavate  this 
typical  mound,  which  began  with  prehistoric  Egypt,  and 
ended,  probably,  about  Anno  Domini  600.  The  explorer  who 
should  sink  a  vertical  shaft  through  the  heart  of  the  mass 
would  cut  through  the  relics  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
generations  of  men.  It  would  not  be  one  town  which  he 
would  lay  open ;  it  would  be  an  immense  succession  of  towns, 
stratum  above  stratum,  with  a  semi-barbarian  settlement  at 
the  bottom  and  a  Christian  town  at  the  top.  Amid  the 
caked  dust  and  rubbish  of  that  Christian  towrn  he  would  find 
little  terra-cotta  lamps  of  the  old  classical  shape,  stamped 
with  the  palm  or  cross.  And  he  would  find  Koman  coins, 
Gnostic  gems,  and  potsherds  scribbled  over  with  Coptic, 
Greek,  and  demotic  memoranda.  Here,  too — hidden  away, 
perhaps,  in  an  earthen  jar,  in  the  evil  days  of  religious  per- 
secution—  he  might  hope  to  find  a  copy  of  the  earliest 
Coptic  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  or  a  priceless  second 
century  codex  of  the  New  Testament. 

Next  below  this,  in  strata  of  the  Greek  period,  he  would 
find  coins  of  the  Ptolemies,  Greek  and  Egyptian  inscriptions, 
Greek  and  Egyptian  papyri,  images  of  Greek  and  Egyptian 
gods,  and  works  of  art  in  the  GraBCO  -  Egyptian  and  pure 
Greek  styles.  Among  other  possible  treasures  might  be  dis- 
covered a  copy  of  Manetho's  History  of  Egypt,  or  some  of  the 
lost  masterpieces  of  the  Greek  poets.  Still  working  down- 
ward, he  would  come  upon  evidences  of  various  periods  of 
foreign  conquest,  in  the  form  of  Persian  and  Assyrian  tab- 
lets ;  and  below  these,  in  strata  of  the  Saite  time,  wrould  be 
found  exquisite  works  of  art  in  bronze,  sculpture,  and  per- 
sonal ornaments.  Even  \vhen  so  low  dowrn  as  the  Nineteenth 
Dynasty — the  grand  epoch  of  Rameses  the  Great — we  are 
not  yet  half  through  our  mound.  Under  the  debris  of  that 


THE  EXPLORER  IM   EGYPT.  11 

sumptuous  period  we  may  find  traces  of  the  Hyksos,  or  Shep- 
herd Kings — those  mysterious  invraders  of  Mongolian  type 
who  ruled  Egypt  for  five  hundred  years.  Below  this  again, 
we  come  upon  relics  of  the  magnificent  Twelfth  Dynasty ; 
and  so  on  down  to  the  time  of  the  Pyramid  Kings,  when  we 
should  find  scarabs  of  Pepi,  Unas,  Khafra,  and  Khufu,  and 
perhaps  even  of  Mena  himself !  Nor  must  the  temple  bur- 
ied in  the  heart  of  our  mound  be  forgotten  —  a  temple  of 
which,  perhaps,  no  two  stones  are  left  standing  the  one  upon 
the  other,  but  which,  nevertheless,  is  rich  in  broken  statues 
of  Kings  and  gods,  and  in  fragmentary  records  of  victories 
and  treaties,  calendars  of  feasts,  and  votive  inscriptions. 

This  sketch,  however,  is  a  mere  outline  of  possibilities. 
No  mound  would  be  likely  to  yield  all  these  consecutive 
links  of  history.  Some  would  be  found  in  one  mound,  and 
some  in  another.  There  are  mounds  and  mounds.  Exca- 
vation is  a  lottery,  and  the  prizes  vary  in  number  and  value. 
Excepting,  of  course,  the  second  century  codex  and  the  copy 
of  Manetho's  History,  almost  every  object  which  I  have 
named  as  likely  to  be  discovered  in  my  typical  mound  has, 
however,  actually  been  found  in  different  places  and  at  dif- 
ferent times.  I  have  myself  picked  up  terra  -  cotta  lamps 
stamped  with  early  Christian  emblems  on  the  mounds  of 
Memphis,  inscribed  potsherds  in  Nubia,  scraps  of  beautiful 
blue-glazed  ware  at  Denderah,  mummy -bandages  in  the  tombs 
of  Thebes,  and  fragments  of  exquisite  alabaster  cups  and 
bowls  in  the  shadow  of  the  Great  Sphinx  at  Ghizeh.  The 
mountain-slopes  of  Siut  are  strewn  with  cerement  wrappings, 
and  the  debris  of  mummies  broken  up  for  the  sake  of  their 
funerary  amulets  by  the  predatory  Arabs ;  and  there  is  not 
an  ancient  burial-ground,  or  mound,  or  ruined  temple  in 
Egypt  where  the  traveller  who  has  patience  enough  to  grub 
under  the  soil  beneath  his  feet  may  not  find  relics  of  the 
dead  and  gone  past. 

The  Yalley  of  the  Nile  is,  in  short,  one  great  museum,  of 
which  the  contents  are  perhaps  one-third  or  one-fourth  part 
only  above  ground.  The  rest  is  all  below  the  surface,  wait- 


12  PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

ing  to  be  discovered.  Whether  you  go  up  the  great  river, 
or  strike  off  to  east  or  west  across  the  desert,  your  horizon 
is  always  bounded  by  mounds,  or  by  ruins,  or  by  ranges 
of  mountains  honey-combed  with  tombs.  If  you  but  stamp 
your  foot  upon  the  sands,  you  know  that  it  probably 
awakens  an  echo  in  some  dark  vault  or  corridor,  untrodden 
of  man  for  three  or  four  thousand  years.  The  mummied 
generations  are  everywhere — in  the  bowels  of  the  mountains, 
in  the  faces  of  the  cliffs,  in  the  rock-cut  labyrinths  which 
underlie  the  surface  of  the  desert.  Exploration  in  such  a 
land  as  this  is  a  kind  of  chase.  You  think  that  you  have  dis- 
covered a  scent.  You  follow  it ;  you  lose  it ;  you  find  it  again. 
You  go  through  every  phase  of  suspense,  excitement,  hope, 
disappointment,  exultation.  The  explorer  has  need  of  all 
his  wits,  and  he  learns  to  use  them  with  the  keenness  of  a 
ISTorth  American  Indian. 

Here  his  quick  eye  notes  a  depression  in  the  soil,  and  be- 
neath the  sandy  surface  he  detects  something  like  the  vague 
outline  of  a  vast  chess-board.  Do  these  indicate  the  founda- 
tions of  a  building  ?  Farther  on  the  ground  is  strewn  with 
splinters  of  limestone.  Do  they  mark  the  wreck  of  a  tomb  ? 
Yonder  the  mountain-side  is  seamed  with  beds  of  calcareous 
deposit,  layer  above  layer ;  but  at  one  point  the  cliff  is  broken 
clear  away,  and  this  escarpment,  whether  natural  or  artificial, 
is  marked  by  a  pile  of  fallen  blocks  and  debris.  Is  this  an 
accident  of  nature,  or  does  it  mark  the  entrance  to  some 
hitherto  undiscovered  sepulchre  ?  Here,  again,  is  a  mysteri- 
ous sign  cut  on  the  face  of  a  cliff,  and  here  another,  and  an- 
other. What  do  these  figures  mean?  Do  they  point  the 
way  to  some  cavern  full  of  treasure  hidden  away  thousands 
of  years  ago,  and  has  the  rock  been  "  blazed,"  as  the  Cana- 
dian settler  blazes  the  forest-trees,  that  he  may  know  how  to 
retrace  his  steps  ? 

The  slenderest  clew  may  lead  to  good-fortune,  and  every 
inch  of  the  way  is  full  of  vague  suggestions. 

At  last,  guided  half  by  experience,  half  by  instinct,  the 
explorer  decides  on  a  spot  and  calls  up  his  workmen.  They 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT.  13 

come — perhaps  a  dozen  half-naked  Arabs  and  some  fifteen 
or  twenty  children — the  men  armed  with  short  picks,  the 
children  with  baskets  in  which  to  carry  away  the  rubbish. 
A  hole  is  dug,  the  sand  is  cleared  away,  the  stony  bed  of  the 
desert  is  reached,  and  there,  just  below  the  feet  of  the  dig- 
gers, a  square  opening  is  seen  in  the  rock.  There  is  a  shout 
of  rejoicing.  More  men  are  called  up,  and  the  work  begins 
in  earnest.  The  shaft,  however,  is  choked  with  sand  and 
mud.  A  little  lower  down,  and  it  is  filled  with  a  sort  of 
concrete  composed  of  chips  of  limestone,  pebbles,  sand,  and 
water,  which  is  almost  as  compact  as  the  native  rock.  The 
men  get  down  to  a  depth  of  six,  twelve,  fifteen,  twenty  feet. 
The  baskets  are  now  loaded  at  the  bottom  and  hauled  up, 
generally  spilling  half  their  contents  by  the  way. 

At  last  the  sun  goes  down ;  twilight  comes  up  apace ;  and 
the  bottom  of  the  square  black  funnel  seems  as  far  off  as  ever. 
Then  the  men  trudge  off  to  their  homes,  followed  by  the 
tired  children ;  and  the  explorer  suddenly  finds  out  that  he 
has  had  nothing  to  eat  since  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
and  that  he  has  a  furious  headache.  He  goes  back,  however, 
at  the  same  hour  next  morning,  and  for  as  many  next  morn- 
ings as  need  be  till  the  end  is  reached.  That  may  not  be 
for  a  week  or  a  fortnight.  Some  tomb-pits  are  from  a  hun- 
dred to  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  deep ;  and  some  pits  lead  to 
a  subterraneous  passage  another  hundred  or  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  long,  which  has  to  be  cleared  before  the  sepul- 
chral chamber  can  be  entered.  When  that  long  -  looked-for 
moment  comes  at  last,  the  explorer  trusts  himself  to  the 
rOpe  —  a  flimsy  twist  of  palm  fibre,  which  becomes  visibly 
thinner  from  the  strain — and  goes  down  as  if  into  a  mine. 

What  will  he  find  to  reward  him  for  time  spent  and  pa- 
tience wearied  ?  Who  shall  say  ?  Perhaps  a  great  nobleman 
of  the  time  of  Thothmes  III.  or  of  Eameses  the  Great,  lying 
in  state,  just  as  they  left  him  there  three  thousand  years  ago, 
enclosed  in  three  coffins  gorgeous  with  gold  and  colors ;  his 
carven  staff,  his  damascened  battle-axe,  his  alabaster  vases, 
his  libation  vessels,  and  his  "  funeral  baked  meats,"  all  un- 


14:  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

touched  and  awaiting  his  resurrection.     For  so  lie  the  royal 
and  noble  dead  of  those  foregone  days : 

"Cased  in  cedar  and  wrapped  in  a  sacred  gloom; 
Swathed  in  linen  and  precious  unguents  old  ; 
Painted  with  cinnabar  and  rich  with  gold.  4 

Silent  they  rest  in  solemn  salvatory, 
Sealed  from  the  moth  and  the  owl  and  the  flitter- mouse, 
Each  with  his  name  on  his  breast." 

Or  perhaps  the  explorer  may  find  only  a  broken  coffin, 
some  fragments  of  mummy-cloth,  and  a  handful  of  bones. 
The  Arabs  or  the  Romans,  the  Greeks  or  the  Persians,  or 
perhaps  the  ancient  Egyptians  themselves,  have  been  there 
before  him,  and  all  the  buried  treasures — the  arms,  the  jew- 
els, the  amulets,  the  papyri — are  gone. 

Yet,  even  so,  there  may  be  an  inscription  carved  on  one  of 
the  walls  or  passages  which  alone  is  worth  all  the  cost  of 
opening  the  tomb.  It  may  possibly  be  a  new  chapter  of 
"The  Book  of  the  Dead";  or  a  genealogical  table  of  the 
family  of  the  deceased,  restoring  some  lost  link  in  a  royal 
Dynasty ;  or  perhaps  a  few  lines  scratched  by  an  ancient 
Greek  or  Roman  tourist  who  happened  to  be  there  when  the 
tomb  was  plundered  in  the  days  of  the  Ptolemies  or  the 
CaBsars.  The  traveller  of  olden  time  was  as  fond  of  leaving 
his  autograph  on  the  monuments  as  any  Cook's  tourist  of 
to-day,  and  an  ancient  traveller's  graffito  may  be  of  great  his- 
torical interest.  The  explorer  who  should  find  the  autograph 
of  Herodotus  or  Plato  would  feel  that  he  had  made  a  discov- 
ery worth  at  least  as  much  as  a  papyrus,  and  more  than  a 
good  many  mummies. 

Such  an  exploration  as  I  have  just  described  would  belong 
to  Upper  Egypt,  where  the  ruins  are  all  above  ground,  and 
where  the  explorer's  object  is  mainly  to  discover  subterrane- 
ous tombs.*  In  Lower  Egypt,  his  work  assumes  a  quite  dif- 

*  This  description  (from  page  12  to  page  14)  of  an  exploration  in  Upper 
Egypt  is  a  free  adaptation  from  a  passage  in  Professor  Maspero's  address, 
delivered  to  the  pupils  of  the  Lycee  Henri  Quatre  in  August,  1887. 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


15 


ferent  character.  There  he  has  to  deal  chiefly  with  mounds 
—huge  rubbish-heaps  from  twenty  to  sixty  or  seventy  feet 
in  height— which  extend  over  many  acres,  and  mark  the  sites 
of  deserted  and  forgotten  cities.  The  labor  here  is  all  above 
the  surface;  but  it  is  none  the  less  difficult  on  that  account, 
and  none  the  less  costly.  The  work  of  the  Egypt  Explora- 


TELL    NEBESHEH. 


upon  its  right  side,  may  be  detected  the  seated  colossal  statue  of  Rnniese 


attorn, 


Tell  Nebesheh  is  here  shown  as  it  appeared  at  the  close  of  Mr.  Petrie's  exca\ 
the  spot  selected  for  excavation  being  the  site  of  the  great  pylon  gate-win 
vance  of  the  temple  ruins.     The  black  granite  sphinx  (headless)  is  seen    n  mid- 
dle distance  to  left;  and  in  the  centre,  on  the  edge  of  this  group  of  ruins.  Iving 


II. 


tion  Fund,  for  instance,  has  hitherto  been  restricted  to  the 
Delta,  and  its  excavations  have  all  been  excavations  of 
mounds.  I  know,  therefore,  only  too  well  what  unmanage- 
able and  expensive  articles  they  are,  and  how  heavily  they 
tax  the  energies  and  health  of  the  explorer. 

A  mound  may  be  situate   some  fifteen  or  twenty  miles 


16  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

from  the  nearest  railway  station,  market-town,  or  post-office. 
It  may  be  in  a  district  so  thinly  populated  that  the  work- 
men have  to  be  hired  from  a  distance,  and  are  obliged  to 
camp  out  in  the  open  desert.  Long  after  the  annual  inun- 
dation has  subsided  south  of  Cairo  a  mound  in  the  Delta 
may  be  surrounded  by  unwholesome  swamps,  and  be  unap- 
proachable except  by  the  higher  order  of  amphibia,  such  as 
the  explorer  and  his  followers. 

When  Mr.  Petrie  and  Mr.  Griffith  went  to  Tell  Nebesheh 
in  the  month  of  February,  1886,  they  literally  landed  on  an 
unknown  island  in  the  Eastern  Delta,  far  from  the  Nile,  far 
from  the  Mediterranean,  and  farther  still  from  the  Gulf  of 
Suez.  This  statement,  if  unexplained,  might  well  be  received 
with  polite  incredulity ;  but  it  is  literally  true. 

The  winter  floods  were  still  out ;  the  marshes  were  lakes ; 
the  desert  was  mud ;  the  roads  were  under  water.  Mr.  Petrie, 
coming  from  the  westward  by  canal-boat,  found  himself  put 
ashore,  with  three  miles  of  swamp  (including  a  canal,  which 
he  waded)  between  himself  and  his  destination.  Mr.  Griffith, 
coming  from  the  south-east,  encountered  worse  swamps,  and 
a  canal  both  wider  and  deeper,  which  he  was  obliged  to 
swim.  To  the  southward,  to  the  northward,  it  was  all  the 
same — water  and  sand,  water  and  mud,  water  and  marsh. 
On  this  dreary  island  the  two  explorers  lived  and  labored  for 
some  eight  or  ten  weeks,  and  it  was  not  till  the  last  month  of 
their  sojourn  that  the  surrounding  country  became  really  dry. 
Nor  could  they  be  said,  meanwhile,  to  have  lived  in  the  lap 
of  luxury.  They  were  lodged  in  a  guest-chamber  attached 
to  the  house  of  the  Sheikh  of  JSTebesheh,  who  rode  into  the 
room  every  evening  on  his  donkey  and  paid  them  a  visit  of 
two  hours.  This  room  was  of  large  size,  with  an  earthen 
floor  strongly  impregnated  with  salt,  and  always  damp.  An 
earthen  divan,  under  which  the  rats  burrowed  in  legions,  ran 
round  the  walls ;  and  the  ceiling  was  made  of  palm  trunks, 
along  which  the  said  rats  ran  upsidedown  with  alarming 
activity  from  sunset  till  dawn. 

Like  many  places  in  Egypt,  modern  as  well  as  ancient,  this 


THE  EXPLORER  IN   EGYPT.  17 

mound  rejoiced  in  a  variety  of  names,  being  known  as  Tell 
Nebesheh,  alias  Tell  Bedawi,  alias  Tell  Farun.  The  first  is 
the  name  of  the  modern  village;  the  second  means  "the 
mound  of  the  Bedouin " ;  the  third  (perpetuating,  perhaps, 
an  echo  of  old  tradition)  means  "the  mound  of  the  Pha- 
raoh." "  The  mound  of  graves "  would  be  a  better  name 
than  any  of  these,  for  the  place  proved  to  be  a  vast  and  very 
ancient  cemetery,  the  level  of  which  had  been  raised  from 
age  to  age  by  successive  strata  of  interments.  Moreover,  it 
was  a  large  mound ;  so  large  that,  besides  the  above-named 
cemetery,  it  contained  the  remains  of  two  ancient  towns  and 
the  site  of  a  temple.  The  temple  occupied  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  mound,  and  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a 
sacred  enclosure  about  six  hundred  feet  square. 

Now  this  cemetery  turned  out  to  be  a  very  curious  place, 
quite  unlike  the  cemeteries  of  Memphis,  Abydos,  and  Thebes. 
It  consisted  of  an  immense  number  of  small  chambers,  or 
isolated  groups  of  chambers,  scattered  irregularly  over  a 
sandy  plain.  These  were  built  of  unbaked  brick  and  roofed 
with  barrel- vaulting.  Some  of  the  largest  were  cased  (or  lined, 
if  subterranean)  with  limestone.  These  tomb-chambers  dated 
from  about  the  period  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty.  In  later 
times — in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  after — large  blocks  of 
about  a  dozen  chambers  became  frequent.  These  tombs  had 
nearly  all  been  pillaged  in  early  times,  so  that  in  a  hundred 
only  half  a  dozen  bodies  were  found ;  and  not  only  had  the 
chambers  fallen  to  decay,  but  they  had  been  levelled,  and  oth- 
ers built  on  them,  so  that  three  or  four  successive  occupa- 
tions of  the  same  ground  might  be  traced.  In  some  of  these 
vaults  Mr.  Petrie  found  quantities  of  bones  indiscriminately 
piled,  not  as  if  they  had  been  thrown  in  by  spoilers  or  tomb- 
breakers,  but  as  if  they  had  been  dug  up  en  masse  from  some 
other  site,  and  reinterred  without  ceremony. 

In  one  of  the  earlier  tombs  no  fewer  than  two  hun- 
dred uninscribed  funerary  statuettes  in  green-glazed  pottery 
were  found ;  and  in  another  some  thirty  thousand  beads  of 
glass,  silver,  and  lapis  lazuli.  Bronze  spear-heads,  amulets, 
2 


18  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

scarabs,  etc.,  were  also  turned  up  in  considerable  numbers. 
Last,  but  in  point  of  interest  certainly  not  least,  came  the 
discovery  of  two  sets  of  masonic  deposits  under  the  corners 
of  an  unimportant  building  in  the  cemetery.  These  consist- 
ed of  miniature  mortars,  corn-rubbers,  and  specimen  plaques 
of  materials  used  in  the  building,  such  as  glazed-ware,  va- 
rious colored  marbles,  jasper,  and  the  like. 

A  magnificent  gray  granite  sarcophagus  inscribed  for  a 
prince  and  priest  of  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  and  part  of 
a  limestone  statue  dedicated  to  Harpakhrat,  the  "  child  Ho- 
rus,"  whose  legendary  birthplace  was  in  these  Delta  marsh- 
lands, yielded  the  Egyptian  name  of  this  site,  which  repre- 
sented all  that  remained  of  the  ancient  city  of  Am;  while 
among  other  valuable  monuments  exhumed  in  the  course  of 
the  excavations  were  a  black  granite  altar  of  the  reign  of 
Amenemhat  II.,  third  Pharaoh  of  the  great  Twelfth  Dynas- 
ty ;  two  thrones  in  red  sandstone,  belonging  to  statues  of 
royal  personages  of  the  same  line ;  a  colossal  seated  statue 
of  Kameses  II.,  in  black  granite ;  and,  most  interesting  of 
all,  a  headless  black  granite  sphinx,  (3)  upon  which  successive 
Pharaohs  had  engraved  their  cartouches,  or  royal  ovals,  each 
in  turn  erasing  the  names  and  titles  of  his  predecessors.  The 
description  of  this  granite  palimpsest  is  best  given  in  Mr. 
Petrie's  own  words,  as  written  in  his  weekly  report  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  : 

"  Originally  made  under  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  to  judge 
by  the  style,  it  has  erased  cartouches  on  the  chest,  between 
the  paws,  on  each  shoulder,  on  the  right  flank  (the  left  being 
broken  away),  and,  sixthly,  an  erased  inscription  around  the 
base.  Besides  these,  two  legible  inscriptions  remain — name- 
ly, the  cartouche  of  Seti  II.  on  the  chest,  and  the  cartouches 
of  Set-nekht  [Rameses  I.]  on  the  left  shoulder." 

If,  however,  statues  and  inscriptions  and  funerary  treas- 
ures are  the  reward  of  the  explorer,  he  pays  amply  for  that 
reward  in  personal  discomfort,  and  sometimes  even  in  actual 
privation.  At  Tell  Defenneh,  where  Mr.  Petrie  made  his  cel- 
ebrated discovery  of  the  ruins  of  "  Pharaoh's  House  at  Tah- 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


19 


panhes,"  there  were  greater  hardships  to  be  borne  than  at 
Tell  Nebesheh.  Here  the  mounds  were  hemmed  in  between 
a  barren  desert  and  a  brackish  lake ;  there  was  no  food  pur- 
chasable nearer  than  Zagazig,  some  fifteen  miles  distant, 


TELL-EL-YAHUDIEH. 


This  mound,  excavated  by  M.  Naville  in  1887,  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  a  mound 
which  has  been  cut  and  caved  away  by  many  generations  of  Arab  husbandmen. 
The  whole  mound  was  originally  a  homogeneous  mass  of  the  height  of  the  near- 
est mass,  which  is  scaled  by  the  small  human  figures  to  the  left  of  the  picture. 


and  the  water  was  barely  drinkable.  The  diggers  lived  on 
mere  lentils,  and  in  default  of  any  shelter  from  the  burning 
sun  of  mid-day  and  the  cold  chills  of  midnight,  they  dug  out 
burrows  for  themselves  in  the  sand-hillocks,  and  roofed  them 
over  with  tamarisk  boughs.  Mr.  Petrie,  of  course,  had  his 
tent ;  but  in  the  matter  of  food  he  was  not  much  better  off 
than  his  Arabs,  having  only  biscuits  and  tinned  vegetables 
in  his  scanty  larder. 

When  Mr.  Petrie,  Mr.  Griffith,  and  Mr.  Ernest  Gardner 


20  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

were  working  all  three  together  at  Naukratis  they  divided 
the  work  ;  one  superintending  the  excavation  of  the  Temple 
of  Aphrodite,  another  the  excavation  of  the  ancient  town, 
and  the  third  the  excavation  of  the  cemetery.  Then  arose  a 
very  important  question — which  should  undertake  the  cook- 
ing, and  which  should  do  the  washing-up  ?  JS~ow  the  work 
in  the  town  was  the  heaviest,  so  he  who  took  the  heaviest 
task  could  not  also  be  the  cook.  The  cemetery,  again,  was 
a  long  way  off,  and  the  cook  could  not  therefore  go  to  and 
fro  between  the  camp  and  the  cemetery.  The  temple,  though 
requiring  great  care  and  attention,  was  really  the  lightest 
work;  so  it  wras  finally  agreed  that  the  town  should  take 
life  easily  when  not  on  duty  in  the  diggings,  that  the  temple 
should  do  the  cooking,  and  that  the  cemetery  should  do  the 
washing-up. 

The  explorer,  of  all  men,  must  "  scorn  delights  and  live 
laborious  days."  His  day  must  begin  at  sunrise,  when  his 
workmen  are  due.  First  he  must  go  round  and  assign  to  each 
worker  his  individual  task,  booking  every  man's  name  as  he 
comes  in :  this  takes  perhaps  one  hour  and  a  half.  He  then 
goes  to  his  tent  and  has  breakfast,  and  after  breakfast  he 
makes  his  second  round.  He  now  helps,  perhaps,  to  move  a 
huge  block  or  two,  stirs  up  the  lazy  digger,  catches  a  pilferer 
in  the  act  and  dismisses  him,  separates  gossips,  copies  inscrip- 
tions, or  takes  photographs,  with  the  sun  blazing  overhead 
and  the  thermometer  standing  at  99°  in  the  shade.  In  the 
evening  he  writes  reports,  journals,  and  letters ;  classifies  and 
catalogues  the  objects  discovered  during  the  day ;  draws  plans, 
makes  up  his  accounts,  and  so  forth.  At  last  he  goes  to  bed, 
dead  tired,  and  is  kept  awake  half  the  night  by  predatory 
rats,  mice,  and  other  "  small  deer."  At  Tanis  the  mice  were 
simply  unbearable.  Being  field-mice,  they  would  not  walk 
into  traps  like  civilized  mice,  so  the  explorer's  only  resource 
was  to  burn  a  night-light  and  shoot  them.  Now  to  lie  in 
bed  and  shoot  mice  with  a  revolver  is  surely  a  form  of  sport 
exclusively  reserved  for  the  explorer  in  Egypt.  Flies,  of 
course,  are  legion,  and  the  white  ant  is  a  perpetual  plague  of 


THE  EXPLORER   IN  EGYPT. 


21 


the  first  water.  Besides  a  way  they  have  of  transporting 
biscuits,  dates,  coffee,  sugar,  and  all  sorts  of  portable  provi- 
sions to  their  own  private  residences,  these  horrid  insects 
have  an  abnormal  appetite  for  paper,  and  consume  reports, 
correspondence,  and  even  hieroglyphic  dictionaries  as  ea- 
gerly as  young  ladies  devour  novels  and  romances. 

The  great  field  of  archaeological  exploration  in  Egypt  is 
not  by  any  means  an  easy  field  to  cultivate.  The  ground 
has  gone  to  waste  for  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  years, 
and  become  sheer  wilderness ;  and  he  who  would  hope  to 


TELL    NEBIREH. 

Two  of  the  great  trenches  cut  by  Mr.  Petrie  are  visible  in  the  illustration,  one  at 
the  north  end,  the  other  at  the"  south  end  of  the  mound.  On  the  highest  part  to 
the  left  is  an  Arab  cemetery. 

reap  a  harvest  from  it  must  clear  it,  dig  it,  and  put  in  a 

vast  amount  of  that  expensive  patent  manure  called  brains. 

Few,  very  few,  probably,  of  those  who  "  sit  at  home  at 

ease "  have  any  clear  notion  of  the  qualifications  which  go 


22  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

to  make  an  explorer  of  the  right  sort — still  less  of  the  kind 
of  life  he  is  wont  to  lead  when  engaged  in  the  work  of  ex- 
ploration. They  know  that  he  goes  to  Egypt  just  as  our 
November  fogs  are  coming  on,  and  that  he  thereby  escapes 
our  miserable  English  winter.  They  also  know  that  he  lives 
in  a  tent,  and  that  he  spends  his  time  in  "  discovering  things." 
Now  what  can  be  more  romantic  than  life  in  a  tent  ?  And 
what  can  possibly  be  more  charming  than  "discovering 
things?"  They  may  not  be  very  clear  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  "  things "  in  question ;  but  they,  at  all  events,  conceive 
of  his  life  as  a  series  of  delightful  surprises,  and  of  himself 
as  the  favorite  of  fortune,  having  but  to  dip  his  hand  into  a 
sort  of  archaeological  lottery -box,  and  take  out  nothing  but 
prizes.  Of  the  judgment,  the  patience,  the  skill  which  are 
needed  in  the  mere  selection  of  a  site  for  excavation ;  of  the 
vigilance  which  has  to  be  exercised  while  the  excavations  are 
in  progress ;  of  the  firm  but  good-humored  authority  requi- 
site for  the  control  of  a  large  body  of  Oriental  laborers ;  of 
the  range  of  knowledge  indispensable  for  the  interpretation 
and  classification  of  the  objects  which  may  be  discovered, 
the  outside  public  has  no  more  conception  than  I  have  of 
the  qualities  and  training  necessary  for  the  command  of  an 
iron-clad. 

In  the  first  place,  the  explorer  in  Egypt  must  have  a  fair 
knowledge  of  colloquial  Arabic,  no  small  share  of  diplomatic 
tact,  a  strong  will,  an  equable  temper,  and  a  good  consti- 
tution. It  is  important  that  he  should  be  well  acquainted 
with  Egyptian,  Biblical,  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  Greek,  and 
Roman  history ;  for  the  annals  of  these  nations  continually 
overlap,  or  are  dovetailed  into  one  another,  and  the  explorer 
is  at  any  time  likely  to  come  upon  cuneiform  tablets  such  as 
have  lately  been  found  in  large  numbers  at  Tell  el  Amarna, 
in  Upper  Egypt ;  or  upon  relics  of  the  Hebrews,  such  as  the 
ancient  Jewish  cemetery  discovered  by  M.  Naville  at  Tell 
el  Yahudieh,  in  Lower  Egypt,  in  1887 ;  or  upon  Greek  docu- 
ments, Greek  pottery,  and  Greek  terra-cottas,  such  as  have 
rewarded  the  labors  of  Mr.  Petrie,  Mr.  Griffith,  and  Mr. 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


23 


Ernest  Gardner  at  Naukratis,  in  the  Eastern  Delta.  Frag- 
ments of  Homer,  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  and  other  Greek  poets 
have  been  found  from  time  to  time  in  Egypt  during  the  pres- 
ent century,  some  scribbled  on 
potsherds  and  some  written  on 
papyrus.(4)  It  is  not  three  years 
since  Mr.  Petrie  found  a  com- 
plete copy  of  the  Second  Book 
of  the  "  Iliad,"  written  on  papy- 
rus in  most  beautiful  uncial 
Greek  by  a  scribe  of  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  and  buried 
under  the  head  of  a  woman  in 
the  GraBCO-Egyptian  necropolis 
of  Hawara,  in  the  Fayum.  The 
woman  had  apparently  been 
young  and  beautiful.  Her  teeth 
were  small  and  regular,  and  her 
long,  silky  black  hair  had  been 
cut  off  and  laid  in  a  thick  coil 
upon  her  breast.  Was  she  a 

Greek,  or  was  she  an  Egyptian  lady  learned  in  the  language 
of  the  schools  ?  We  know  not.  There  was  no  inscription  to 
tell  of  her  nationality  or  her  name.  We  only  know  that  she 
was  young  and  fair,  and  that  she  so  loved  her  Homer  that  it 
was  buried  with  her  in  the  grave.  Her  head  and  her  beau- 
tiful black  hair  are  now  in  the  Ethnographical  Department 
of  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington,  and 
her  precious  papyrus  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford. 

To  appreciate  and  report  upon  such  a  find  as  this,  or  upon 
the  inscriptions  discovered  at  Naukratis,  the  explorer  must, 
of  course,  be  a  fairly  competent  Greek  scholar. 

Still  more  of  course  must  he  be  sufficiently  conversant 
with  the  ancient  Egyptian  language  to  translate  any  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions  which  he  may  discover.  A  knowledge 
of  trigonometry,  though  not  absolutely  indispensable,  is  of 
value  in  surveying  sites  and  determining  ancient  levels. 


ARCHAIC    HEAD    OF    CYPRIOTE    TYPE. 

Found  iu  the  ruins  of  Naukratis. 


M  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

But,  above  all,  the  explorer  must  be  a  good  "  all-round  "  ar- 
chaeologist. 

Now,  does  the  world — meaning  thereby  the  great  body  of 
cultivated  readers — at  all  realize  what  it  is  to  be  a  good  "  all- 
round  "  archa3ologist  ?  It  must  be  remembered,  first  of  all, 
what  that  science  is,  or  rather  that  aggregate  of  sciences, 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  Archaeology.  Were  I  asked 
to  define  it,  I  should  reply  that  archaeology  is  that  science 
which  enables  us  to  register  and  classify  our  knowledge  of 
the  sum  of  man's  achievement  in  those  arts  and  handicrafts 
whereby  he  has,  in  time  past,  signalized  his  passage  from 
barbarism  to  civilization.  The  first  chapter  of  this  science 
takes  up  the  history  of  the  human  race  at  a  date  coeval  with 
the  mammoth  and  other  extinct  mammalia;  and  its  last 
chapter,  which  must  always  be  in  a  state  of  transition,  may 
be  said  to  end  for  the  present  with  about  a  hundred  or  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 

Now  archaeology  in  Egypt  begins  later,  and  ends  earlier, 
than  archaeology  in  this  broad  and  general  sense.  We  have 
never  yet  got  far  enough  behind  the  first  chapters  of  Egyp- 
tian history  to  discover  any  traces  of  a  stone  age.(5)  The 
stone  age  of  the  Nile  Valley,  if  it  ever  existed,  underlies 
such  a  prodigious  stratum  of  semi-barbaric  civilization  that 
the  spade  of  the  excavator  has  not  yet  reached  it.  Also, 
Egyptian  archaeology,  properly  so  called,  ends  with  the 
last  chapter  of  Egyptian  history ;  that  is  to  say,  with  the 
abolition  of  the  ancient  religion  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century  of  our  era.  Hence,  our  explorer  in  Egypt  is 
only  called  upon  to  be  an  "all-round"  archaeologist  within 
the  field  of  the  national  history :  namely,  from  the  time 
of  Mena,  the  prototype  of  Egyptian  royalty,  who  probably 
reigned  about  five  thousand  years  before  Christ,  down  to 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  Anno  Domini  379. 
Yet  even  within  that  limit,  he  has  to  know  a  great  deal 
about  a  vast  number  of  things.  He  must  be  familiar  with 
all  the  styles  and  periods  of  Egyptian  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  decoration;  with  the  forms,  patterns,  and  glazes  of  Egyp- 


THE  EXPLORER  IN   EGYPT. 


25 


tian  pottery ;  with  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the 
mummy -cases,  sarcophagi,  methods  of  embalmment  and 
styles  of  bandaging  peculiar  to  interments  of  various  epochs ; 
and  with  all  phases  of  the  art  of  writing,  hieroglyphic,  hie- 
ratic, and  demotic.  Kor  is  this  all.  He  must  know  by  the 
measurement  of  a  mud  brick,  by  the  color  of  a  glass  bead, 
by  the  modelling  of  a  porcelain  statuette,  by  the  pattern  of 


PLAN    OF    NAUKRATIS. 

The  plan  is  reduced  from  Mr.  Petrie's  large  plate  in  "  Nankratis,"  Part  I.,  and 
shows  the  lines  of  the  ancient  streets,  and  the  sites  of  such  temples  and  public 
buildings  as  were  discovered  in  the  course  of  the  first  season's  work,  including 
the  Great  Temenos  (Pan-Hellenion).  The  temples  of  Hera  and  Aphrodite  were 
found  the  following  year.  The  canal  to  left  follows  the  course  of  the  ancient 
canal  which  formed  the  famous  "  port "  of  the  city. 


26  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

an  ear-ring,  to  what  period  each  should  be  assigned.  He 
must  be  conversant  with  all  the  types  of  all  the  gods ;  and 
last,  not  least,  he  must  be  able  to  recognize  a  forgery  at  first 
sight. 

After  this,  it  must  I  think  be  admitted  that  the  explorer, 
like  the  poet,  is  "  born,  not  made."  The  wonder  perhaps  is 
that  he  should  ever  be  born  at  all.  Fortunately,  however, 
for  the  cause  of  knowledge,  this  phenomenal  individual  does 
from  time  to  time  make  his  appearance  upon  earth ;  and  ac- 
cording to  the  form  he  assumes  under  his  different  avatars, 
he  proceeds  to  excavate  Troy,  Curium,  Halicarnassus,  Nin- 
eveh, Bubastis,  or  Naukratis. 

The  discovery  and  excavation  of  the  scanty  ruins  of  this 
last  site — the  famous  and  long-lost  city  of  Naukratis — was 
due  to  Mr.  Petrie.  Former  travellers  had,  for  the  last  fifty 
years,  sought  for  it  in  vain,  and  given  up  the  quest  in  de- 
spair. Ebers  looked  for  it  at  Dessuk,  and  Mariette  at  Sal- 
hadscher,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sai's.  Mr.  Petrie  found  it, 
almost  by  accident,  in  the  course  of  an  archaeological  tramp 
undertaken  at  the  commencement  of  his  working  season  in 
188-4.  He  was  tracking  the  western  frontier-line  of  the  Del- 
ta, and  thus  came  across  a  large  mound  some  three  thousand 
feet  in  length  by  fifteen  hundred  feet  in  width,  the  surface 
of  which  was  so-  thickly  strewn  with  fragments  of  fine 
Greek  figured  ware  that  it  was  impossible  to  walk  upon 
it  in  any  direction  without  crushing  these  beautiful  pot- 
sherds at  every  step.  It  was,  in  fact,  to  quote  his  own 
words,  "like  walking  through  the  smashings  of  the  vase- 
room  of  the  British  Museum."  It  was  to  this  place  that  he 
returned  in  1885,  when  he  made  one  of  the  most  important 
historical  and  archaeological  discoveries  which  have  ever 
rewarded  the  labors  of  the  explorer  in  Egypt. 

The  local  name  of  the  mound  and  of  the  adjacent  village 
(for  which  it  is  vain  to  look  in  any  guide-book  maps)  is  Ne- 
bireh.  The  place  lies  about  equidistant  between  Alexandria 
and  Cairo,  and  about  six  miles  west -north -west  of  Tell  el 
Barud.  When  Mr.  Petrie  first  found  his  way  thither,  he 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


27 


FOUNDATION    DEPOSITS    OF   PTOLEMY   PHILADELPHUS,   B.C.   286-274. 

The  model  mortar  is  the  most  distant  object  in  the  group,  which  consists  of  seven 
ranks.  In  the  second  rank  are  the  corn-rubbers,  i.e.  two  pieces  of  red  granite, 
the  one  concave,  the  other  convex.  Rank  3,  two  libation  vases  in  green  glazed 
ware.  Rank  4,  four  libation  cups  in  same  ware.  Rank  5,  bronze  trowels  and 
chisels,  and  two  pegs  of  alabaster.  Rank  6,  bronze  hatchet,  chisels,  sacrificial 
knife,  and  two  pegs  of  alabaster.  Rank  7,  specimens  of  materials,  mud  brick; 
plaque  of  glazed  ware;  ingots  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  iron;  fragments 
of  lapis  lazuli,  agate,  jasper,  turquoise,  and  obsidian.  This  set  of  masonic  de- 
posits, as  also  those  discovered  by  M.  Naville  at  Tell  Qarraus,  are  in  the  British 
Museum. 


was  the  first  European  traveller  who  had  set  foot  in  that 
secluded  hamlet;  and  when  he  applied  for  permission  to 
excavate  the  mound,  he  found  the  place  unknown,  even 
by  name,  to  the  official,  world  at  Bulak.  The  painted  pot- 
sherds with  which  the  place  was  strewn,  literally  "  thick  as 
leaves  in  Vallombrosa,"  proved  on  examination  to  be  even 
more  beautiful  and  various  than  he  had  at  first  supposed. 
Here  were  cup-handles  with  men's  heads  modelled  in  relief; 


28  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

fragments  of  archaic  vases  painted  in  black  and  crimson  on 
a  buff  ground  with  figures  of  griffins,  hogs,  and  the  like; 
fragments  of  light  brown  ware  with  archaic  animals  in 
black  and  red,  the  ground  parseme  with  flowers ;  others  of 
the  finest  work,  writh  figures  of  horses,  goddesses,  and  so 
forth,  left  in  the  brown  body  on  a  black  ground ;  and  a 
great  abundance  of  all  the  common  sorts  of  red  pottery 
with  raised  patterns  of  lines  and  balls,  brown  with  red  fret- 
work, black  on  bronze  picked  out  with  chocolate  and  white, 
and  many  more  varieties  than  I  have  space  to  enumerate. 
With  these  he  also  found  fragments  of  Greek  and  Cypriote 
statuettes  in  limestone  and  alabaster;  pottery  and  limestone 
whorls  (some  notched  where  worn  by  the  thread) ;  stamped 
amphora-handles,  Greek  and  Egyptian  weights,  beads,  terra- 
cotta statuettes,  and  small  objects  of  various  kinds  in  green 
glazed  ware. 

Strangely  enough,  Mr.  Petrie  seems  to  have  had  no  sus- 
picion of  the  truth,  and  when,  on  the  fourth  day  after  his 
arrival  at  JNebireh,  he  discovered  a  limestone  slab  engraved 
with  an  inscription  in  honor  of  one  Heliodorus,  a  citizen  of 
Naukratis,  he  was  utterly  taken  by  surprise.  "  I  almost 
jumped,"  he  said,  "  when  I  read  these  words  :* 

"  '  The  City  of  Naukratis  [honors] 
Heliodorus,  son  of  Dorion  Philo  .  .  . 
Priest  of  Athena  for  life  .  .  . 
Keeper  of  The  Records  for  virtue  and  good-will.'" 

So,  here  was  ISTaukratis  —  that  ancient  and  famous  mart 
where  Greek  and  Egyptian  first  dwelt  and  traded  together 
on  equal  terms;  Naukratis,  founded,  as  it  is  believed,  by 
Milesian  colonists;  granted, with  special  privileges  and  char- 
ters, to  the  Hellenic  tribes  by  Amasis  II.  of  the  Twen- 

*  H  nOAIS  H  NAYKPAT  U  .  .  . 
HAIOA12  PON  AQPI12NO2  $IA9  .  .  . 
TON.  .  .  EATH2  A6HNA2  AIABION  .  .  . 
2YI.  .  .  PA<t>0<f>YAA  APET2KA  .  .  . 
ENEKTH2  EI2  AYTHN  , 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


29 


ty-sixth  Egyptian  Dynasty;  and  renowned  in  the  times  of 
Athenaeus  and  Herodotus  for  the  skill  of  its  potters  and  the 
taste  of  its  florists  !  And  now  discovery  followed  fast  upon 
discovery,  every  day's  work  bringing  more  and  more  corrob- 
orative evidence  to  light.  Inscriptions,  coins,  sculptures, 
bronzes,  terra-cottas  turned  up  in  astonishing  profusion,  and 
among  other  treasures  a  fine  slab  engraved  with  the  dedica- 
tion of  a  palaestra,  or  public  wrestling-school,  for  the  youth 
of  the  city.  As  the  trenching  and  clearing  progressed,  yet 
more  important  results  were  obtained. 
The  sites,  ruins,  and  sacred  enclosures  of 
two  temples  dedicated  to  Apollo  —  the 
one  erected  upon  the  debris  of  the  other 
—were  first  brought  to  light. 

The  earlier  structure  was  built  of  lime- 
stone, and,  to  judge  by  the  style  of  col- 
umns and  cornice,  dates  from  about  B.C. 
TOO  to  B.C.  600.  The  later  (circa  B.C.  400) 
was  of  white  marble,  and  exquisitely  dec- 
orated. Close  outside  the  temenos-wall 
of  one  of  these  temples  Mr.  Petrie  came 
upon  a  great  deposit  of  magnificent  liba- 
tion-bowls, accidentally  broken  in  the 
service  of  the  temple,  and  thrown  out 
as  useless.  Most  of  them  are  inscribed 
with  votive  dedications  by  pious  Mile- 
sians, Teans,  and  others.  Later  on,  the 
remains  of  the  famous  Pan-IIellenion, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  temples  of  Hera, 
Zeus,  and  Aphrodite  were  discovered,  all 
of  them  mentioned  by  Herodotus  and 
Athenaeus.  These  discoveries  were  the 

WOrk  of  two  Successive  Seasons,  the  first 

' 

season's  explorations  being  conducted  by 
Mr.  Petrie,  and  the  second  by  Mr.  Ernest 
A.  Gardner,  now  Director  of  the  English 

School  of   Archaeology  at  Athens.      The  Greek  department. 


ARCHAIC  STATCKTTE 
OF  A  HUNTER. 

Fmind  in  the  ming  of 
the  Temple  of 


30  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

lines  of  the  streets  of  the  ancient  city  were  yet  traceable ;  the 
"potters'  quarter"  was  identified;  and  not  only  were  several 
of  the  potters'  kilns  found  intact,  but  also  the  ruins  of  a  pot- 
ter's factory.  This  potter,  whomsoever  he  may  have  been, 
did  a  great  trade  in  scarabs.  He  made  all  sorts  of  things — 
miscellaneous  amulets,  toys,  gods,  beads,  and  so  forth — but 
scarabs  were  his  specialty.  The  Egyptian  scarab  is  now  so 
familiar  an  object  in  all  museums  and  private  collections 
that  I  need  hardly  describe  how  these  tiny  amulets  are  made 
in  the  shape  of  a  beetle — the  backs  exactly  imitated  from 
nature,  but  the  undersides  engraved,  like  seals,  with  an  im- 
mense variety  of  devices,  such  as  mottoes,  sacred  emblems, 
figures  of  gods  and  kings,  scrolls,  animals,  fish,  flowers,  and 
the  like.(')  In  the  ruins  of  this  old  artist's  workshops  Mr. 
Petrie  found  hundreds  of  scarabs,  finished  and  unfinished, 
hundreds  of  clay  moulds  for  casting  the  same,  lumps  of  vari- 
ous pigments  for  coloring  the  scarabs,  and  other  appliances 
of  the  trade.  The  scarab-maker's  business  came  somehow 
to  an  untimely  end  about  five  hundred  and  seventy  years 
before  Christ ;  for  the  place  had  evidently  been  suddenly 
deserted,  all  the  good  man's  stock  in  trade  being  left  behind. 
As  the  Greek  colonists  fought  at  that  time  on  the  side  of 
Apries,  the  legitimate  Pharaoh,  when  Amasis  revolted  and 
usurped  the  throne,  we  may  fairly  conclude  that  Naukratis 
suffered  for  the  loyalty  of  her  inhabitants,  and  that  our 
scarab-maker  was  ruined  with  the  rest  of  his  fellow-citizens. 

In  another  part  of  the  town  Mr.  Petrie  came  upon  the 
remains  of  a  jeweller's  workshop,  containing  a  quantity  of 
lump  silver,  and  a  large  store  of  beautiful  archaic  Greek 
coins,  fresh  from  the  mint  of  Athens.  These  coins  had  nev- 
er been  in  circulation,  and  they  were  doubtless  intended  to 
be  made  up  into  necklaces  and  ear-rings,  after  a  fashion  much 
admired  by  the  fair  ladies  of  Hellas,  and  recently  revived  by 
the  jewellers  of  modern  Europe. 

Most  important,  also,  is  the  evidence  here  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  ceramic  arts  of  Greece. 
Patterns  which  we  had  long  believed  to  be  purely  Greek  are 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


31 


now  traced  back,  step  by  step,  to  Egyptian  originals.  The 
well  -  known  "  Greek  honeysuckle  "  pattern,  for  instance,  is 
found  to  be  neither  Greek  nor  honeysuckle.  The  Naukratis 
pottery  furnishes  specimens  of  this  design  in  all  its  stages. 
In  its  most  archaic  form,  it 
is  neither  more  nor  less  than 
the  stock  "lotus  pattern" 
of  the  Egyptian  potters.  (') 
Taken  in  hand  by  the  Greek, 
it  becomes  expanded,  light- 
ened, and  transformed.  Yet 
more  important  is  the  light 
thrown  upon  the  origin  and 
development  of  Greek  art. 
"We  have  long  known  that 
the  early  Greek,  when  emerg- 
ing from  prehistoric  barbar- 
ism, must  have  gone  to  school 
to  the  Delta  and  the  Valley 
of  the  Nile,  not  only  for  his 
first  lessons  in  letters  and 
science,  but  also  for  his  earli- 
est notions  of  architecture 
and  the  arts.  Now,  however, 
for  the  first  time,  we  are 
placed  in  possession  of  direct 
evidence  of  these  facts.  We 
see  the  process  of  teaching 

~on  the  part  of  the  elder  nation,  and  of  learning  on  the  part 
of  the  younger.  Every  link  in  the  chain  which  connects  the 
ceramic  art  of  Greece  with  the  ceramic  art  of  Egypt  is  dis- 
played before  our  eyes  in  the  potsherds  of  Naukratis. 

More  novel  and  curious  than  all,  however,  was  a  series  of 
discoveries  of  ceremonial  deposits  buried  under  the  four  cor- 
ners of  a  building  adjoining  the  Pan-Hellenion.(8) 

The  enclosure  wall  of  the  Pan  -  Hellenion  was  fifty  feet 
thick  and  forty  feet  high,  and  it  was  built  about  six  hun- 


HEAD   OF  APHRODITE. 

From  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Aph- 
rodite, Nauki-atis.  Alexandrian  pe- 
riod. This  head  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  Greek  department. 


32  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

dred  or  six  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
"Within  this  enclosure  were  clustered  not  only  the  temples 
of  the  gods,  but  the  treasury  and  storehouses  of  the  citi- 
zens, who  were  essentially  a  trading  and  manufacturing  com- 
munity. In  a  later  age  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  appears  to 
have  filled  up  a  breach  in  this  wall  with  a  great  building 
and  gate-way,  and  it  was  under  the  four  corners  of  this  gate- 
way that  the  masonic  deposits  of  the  royal  builder  were 
found.  Under  each  corner,  upon  the  dark  clay  of  the  soil, 
had  been  laid  a  little  bed  of  white  sand ;  and  in  this  bed  of 
white  sand,  which  Mr.  Petrie  scraped  away  with  his  own 
hands,  he  found  a  whole  series  of  diminutive  models  laid  in 
a  specially  prepared  hole,  upon  which  sand  had  afterwards 
been  poured  in  such  wise  as  completely  to  cover  the  objects 
beneath. 

These  objects  were  of  three  kinds ;  namely,  models  of  tools, 
models  of  materials,  and  models  commemorative  of  the  cere- 
mony performed  in  laying  the  foundations.  There  was,  for 
instance,  a  model  hoe  for  digging  out  the  ground ;  a  model 
rake,  such  as  those  used  for  making  mortar ;  a  model  adze ;  a 
model  chisel ;  a  tiny  trowel  for  spreading  the  mortar ;  a  model 
hatchet  for  shaping  the  beams ;  and  four  little  alabaster  pegs 
—models  of  those  used  to  mark  out  the  four  corners  of  the 
building.  These  were  the  models  of  tools. 

Then  came  models  of  articles  used  in  the  masonic  cere- 
mony :  a  model  mortar  and  pair  of  corn-rubbers,  a  pair  of 
model  libation-vases,  and  four  model  cups  in  glazed  pottery. 
These,  probably,  had  reference  to  some  rite  in  which  offerings 
of  bread,  oil,  and  wine  were  made.  Also,  there  was  found 
with  them  a  model  sacrificial  knife  and  axe,  such  as  might  be 
used  for  the  slaying  of  victims.  These  were  the  ceremonial 
objects. 

Finally,  there  were  samples  of  materials  :  a  model  brick  of 
Kile  cla}T ;  a  tiny  plaque  of  glazed-ware ;  other  plaques  of  la- 
pis lazuli,  agate,  jasper,  turquoise,  and  obsidian ;  a  Liliputian 
ingot  of  iron ;  and  other  ingots  of  copper,  silver,  lead,  and  gold. 
The  largest  of  these  are  less  than  a  domino,  and  the  majority 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT.  33 

are  less  than  half  that  size.  Last  of  all — last  and  lowest — so 
firmly  attached  by  a  bed  of  rust  to  the  handle  of  a  second  min- 
iature bronze  trowel  that  it  could  not  be  removed  without  dan- 
ger of  breakage,  was  found  a  little  plaque  of  oval  lapis  lazuli 
in  the  form  of  a  royal  cartouche,  engraved  with  the  names  and 
titles  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  The  model  clay  brick  shows 
the  material  of  the  mass  of  the  building ;  the  plaque  of  glazed- 
ware  represents  the  tile-facings  and  general  surface  decora- 
tion; while  the  plaques  of  precious  stones  show  the  more 
costly  substances  used  for  inlaying.  These  objects  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  They  are  most  beautifully  wrought, 
in  perfect  preservation,  and  so  small,  that  they  would  all  lie 
upon  a  sheet  of  letter-paper.  This  was  the  first  discovery  of 
masonic  deposits  ever  made  in  Egypt,  and  it  marks  an  en- 
tirely new  departure  in  the  field  of  exploration.  It  is  impos- 
sible, indeed,  to  over-estimate  the  historical  value  of  a  dis- 
covery which  thus  places  in  our  hands  for  future  use  a  key  to 
the  age  and  date  of  every  important  building  in  Egypt. 

This  discovery  was  made  five  years  ago,  and  it  has  already 
borne  abundant  fruit.  Masonic  deposits  were  found  by  Mr. 
Petrie  in  1886,  at  Tell  Nebesheh,  under  the  substructions  of  a 
temple  built  by  Amasis  II.  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  city  of 


VOTIVE    BOWL 


(mended)  discovered  in  the  great  trench  of  the  Temple  of  Aphrodite,  Naukratis. 
British  Museum, 

3 


34  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS, 


TOTITE   BOWL 


(mended)  discovered  in  the  great  trench  of  the  Temple  of  Aphrodite,  Naukratis. 
British  Museum. 


Am ;  and  again  under  the  substructions  of  a  ruined  temple 
at  Tell  Gemayemi,  during  the  same  year,  by  Mr.  Griffith. 
At  Tell  Qarmus,  in  1887,  M.  Naville  also  discovered  a  se- 
ries of  ceremonial  deposits  of  the  time  of  Philip  Arrhideus. 
Explorers,  in  short,  now  make  systematic  search  for  founda- 
tion deposits,  and  up  to  the  present  time,  with  but  one  ex- 
ception, they  have  invariably  found  them. 

No  large  works  of  sculpture  were  found  in  the  ruins  of 
Naukratis,  with  the  exception  of  two  much-damaged  sphinx- 
es and  the  remains  of  a  headless  colossal  ram  in  white  mar- 
ble. Hands,  feet,  and  other  fragments  of  life-size  statues 
were,  however,  turned  up  in  the  precincts  of  the  various  tem- 
ples, besides  a  large  number  of  smaller  heads  -and  torsos  of 
marble,  limestone,  and  terra-cotta.  Some  of  these  represent 


THE  EXPLORER  IN  EGYPT. 


35 


the  deities  worshipped  in  these  temples,  while  others  are  fash- 
ioned in  the  likeness  of  their  votaries.  Some,  again,  date 
from  the  rude  archaic  beginnings  of  the  Greek  school  of 
Naukratis,  and  others  carry  us  on  to  the  finest  period  of 
Alexandrian  art.  Very  interesting  as  an  example  of  the 
earlier  school  is  this  statuette  of  a  man  carrying  a  hare  over 
each  shoulder,  and  a  knife  in  his  girdle.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  represent  Apollo  as  the  hunter  god ;  but  as  it  was 
found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Aphrodite,  it  is  more 
probably  a  votive  offering  on  the  part  of  a  sportsman  who 
thus  dedicates  himself  to  the  service  of  the  goddess.  The 
treatment  of  the  head  and  hair  is  distinctly  Cypriote  in 
style,  while  the  rigidity  of  the  pose,  and  the  "hieratic"  posi- 
tion of  the  feet  and  arms,  are  as  distinctly  Egyptian.  A 
much-defaced  votive  inscription  in  archaic  Greek  characters 
is  engraved  on  the  right  leg.  Found  on  the  same  site,  but 
widely  separate  in  date,  is  the  beautiful  terra-cotta  head  of 
Aphrodite,  here  reproduced  as  an  example  of  the  high  degree 
of  perfection  to  which  the  Greek 
artists  of  Naukratis  had  attained 
before  the  decadence  of  the  city, 
when  superseded  by  Alexandria. 
The  excavation  of  the  Temple 
of  Aphrodite  proved  to  be  ex- 
traordinarily rich  in  fragments  of 
painted  and  inscribed  Greek  ware. 
A  huge  trench  appears  to  have 
been  dug  round  the  temple  plat- 
form in  ancient  times,  and  into 
this  trench  must  have  been  thrown 
an  immense  store  of  bowls,  vases, 
cups,  and  figurines — the  ceramic 
treasures  of  the  temple.  The  clear- 
ing of  this  mine  of  precious  frag- 
ments occupied  Mr.  Gardner  for 
several  weeks,  six  or  seven  basket- 
fuls  being  the  result  of  each  day's 


OORGONEIA. 

(From  the  cemetery,  Naukratis.) 
The  Greeks  of  the  later  period 
at  Naukratis  were  interred  for 
the  most  part  in  wooden  coffins 
ornamented  with  rosettes,  gry- 
phons, and  gorgoneia  in  ter- 
ra-cotta, painted  and  gilded. 
These  gorgoneia  are  moulded 
in  the  classic  type  of  the  Al- 
exandrian period. 


36  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

work.     One  week  alone — the  week  ending  on  February  13, 
18SC  —  yielded  no  less  than  thirty-five  large  basketfuls  of 
these  exquisite  potsherds,  making,  at  a  rough  computation, 
about  four  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  weight,  or  a  total 
number  of  twenty-five  thousand  fragments.     The  sorting 
and  classifying  of  the  fragments  consumed  more  than  a  year 
of  Mr.  Gardner's  time ;  and  about  twenty  or  twenty-five 
vases,  bowls,  and  other  objects  have  been  put  together  more 
or  less  completely.    Two  of  these  mended  bowls,  described 
by  Mr.  Ernest  A.  Gardner  as  among  "  the  most  magnificent 
examples  of  ancient  pottery  found  at  Naukratis,"  are  here 
reproduced.     These  bowls  have  each  two  triple  handles  ter- 
minating in  a  human  face  at  each  end;  while  midway  be- 
tween the  handles  on  each  side  is  a  boss  with  two  faces  back 
to  back.     A  frieze  of  gazelles  browsing  on  a  ground  parseme 
with  floral  and  other  emblems,  runs  round  the  outside ;  the 
inside  being  decorated  with  a  central  star-shaped  ornament 
surrounded  by  a  frieze  of  lions,  geese,  sphinxes,  etc.(9)    Some 
of  these  votive  offerings,  as  shown  by  the  graffiti  of  the  do- 
nors, were  given  by  citizens  of  Teos,  and  others  by  Milesians. 
Taken  chronologically,  these  Naukratis  fragments  —  for 
thev  are  mostly  fragments — constitute  not  only  a  series  of 
valuable  finds, -but  an  "  object-lesson"  of  the  highest  interest 
on  the  history  of  the  ceramic  arts  of  Greece.    "We  first  of  all 
detect  the  Milesian  colonist  trying  his  "  'prentice  hand  "  at 
scarab-making,  and  producing  at  best  but  a  blundering  imita- 
tion of  that  popular  product  of  his  adopted  home.     Next  we 
find  him  taking  to  pottery,  properly  so  called ;  and,  with  the 
vivacious  fancy  of  his  race,  adapting,  var}nng,  and  playing 
with  the  old  stock  subjects  of  Egyptian  ornament.    Presently 
he  casts  aside  the  trammels  of  tradition  and  launches  out 
into  a  style  of  his  own — a  style  as  purely  Hellenic,  and  as 
original,  as  if  his  first  lessons  had  never  been  learned  in  an 
Oriental  school. 


SAN    VILLAGE. 


II. 

THE  BURIED  CITIES  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

IF  as  a  rule  the  busy  American,  no  less  than  the  busy  Eng- 
lishman, knows  less  about  Egypt  both  ancient  and  modern 
than  about  many  less  interesting  lands,  we  may  assume  that 
his  apparent  indifference  is  mainly  due  to  the  remoteness  of 
the  place  and  the  subject.  From  the  port  of  New  York  to 
the  harbor  of  Alexandria,  as  the  crow  flies,  may  be  rough- 
ly estimated  at  between  five  and  six  thousand  miles ;  while 
for  those  who  are  not  crows  the  transit,  even  at  high  press- 
ure, would  scarcely  be  accomplished  under  three  weeks. 

But  if  modern  Egypt  is  so  far  away  that  it  takes  three 
weeks  to  get  there,  ancient  Egypt  is  infinitely  more  distant. 
The  traveller  who  would  visit  the  court  of  Memphis  in  the 
days  of  the  earliest  Egyptian  monarchy  must  undertake  a 
journey  of  some  six  or  seven  thousand  years.  He  must  not 
only  go  up  the  Nile ;  he  must  ascend  the  great  River  of  Time 
and  trace  the  stream  of  History  to  its  source. 

Do  we  realize  how  far  distant  is  his  goal,  or  how  many 
familiar  landmarks  he  must  leave  behind  ?  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  think  of  the  days  of  Plato  and  Pericles,  of  Horace 
and  the  Caesars,  as  "  ancient  times."  But  Egypt  was  old  and 
outworn  when  Athens  and  Rome  were  founded ;  the  great 


38  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Assyrian  Empire  was  a  creation  of  yesterday  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  Pharaohs ;  the  middle  point  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory was  long  past  when  Moses  received  his  education  at  the 
court  of  Eameses  II. ;  and  the  Pyramids  were  already  hoary 
with  antiquity  when  Abraham  journeyed  into  the  land  of 

Egypt. 

Where,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  are  we  to  place  the  starting- 
point  of  Egyptian  history  ?  That  is  a  very  difficult  question 
to  answer.  The  dawn  is  long  past  when  we  catch  our  first 
glimpse  of  that  far-distant  epoch  when  Mena,  Prince  of  Thi- 
nis,  became  chief  of  the  chieftains  of  the  primitive  clans,  and 
founded  the  first  monarchy.  That  earliest  landmark — dim- 
ly seen  down  the  vista  of  ages — carries  us  back  to  about  five 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era;  and  even  Mena, 
who  is  undoubtedly  an  historical  personage,  has  a  back- 
ground of  tradition  behind  him.  That  background  of  tradi- 
tion represents  prehistoric  Egypt;  and  of  prehistoric  Egypt 
we  at  all  events  know  that  it  was  subdivided  into  a  number 
of  principalities  which  subsequently  became  the  "Nomes," 
or  Provinces,  of  United  Egypt. 

The  rulers  of  these  earliest  petty  states  were  remembered 
by  the  Egyptians  of  after  ages  as  the  Horshesu,  or  "  Follow- 
ers of  Horus."  They  occupied,  in  fact,  much  the  same  place 
in  Egyptian  history  and  tradition  which  the  demi-gods  oc- 
cupied in  the  history  and  tradition  of  Hellas ;  but  with  this 
great  difference  —  the  demi-gods  were  purely  mythical  he- 
roes, whereas  the  Horshesu  were  human  rulers,  living  in  a 
land  where  political  boundaries  were  already  sharply  defined. 
It  is  possible — we  may  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  it  is  probable 
—that  a  gigantic  work  of  art  belonging  to  that  inconceiva- 
bly remote  age  survives  to  this  day  in  the  great  Sphinx  of 
Ghizeh.('°)  Hence  it  may  be  seen  that  even  in  prehistoric 
Egypt  we  are  as  far  as  ever  from  the  beginnings  of  civiliza- 
tion ;  and  beyond  this,  all  is  impenetrable  night. 

The  existence  of  Egypt  as  a  nation  begins  with  Mena,  the 
first  king  of  the  First  Dynasty,  and  ends  with  Cleopatra. 
These  two  names  are  the  preface  and  finis  of  Egyptian  history. 


THE  BURIED  CITIES  OF   ANCIENT  EGYPT.  39 

Between  them  lies  a  space  of  4790  years,  comprising  thirty- 
three  royal  dynasties  and  many  hundreds  of  kings.  Those 
kings  were  not  all  native  to  the  soil.  Egypt,  during  the  long 
centuries  of  her  slow  decadence,  was  often  ruled  by  princes 
of  alien  blood.  But  it  was  not  till  Cleopatra's  galley  turned 
and  fled  at  the  fatal  sea-fight  in  which  Mark  Antony  was 
defeated  that  the  empire  of  the  Pharaohs  ceased  to  be  a 
nation,  and  became  a  Eoman  province.  So  fell  the  most 
ancient  of  monarchies,  the  parent  of  all  our  arts  and  all 
our  sciences,  bequeathing  to  later  ages  a  history  so  long 
that,  compared  with  the  history  of  other  nations,  it  is  almost 
like  a  geological  period. 

It  was  during  these  4790  years  of  national  existence  that 
all  those  temples  were  erected,  all  those  pyramids,  obelisks, 
and  colossal  statues,  of  which  the  shattered  remains  are  to 
this  day  the  marvel  and  admiration  of  travellers. 

Now,  Egypt  is  unapproachably  rich  in  building  material. 
From  Cairo  to  the  first  cataract — a  stretch  of  five  hundred 
and  eighty-two  miles — the  Nile  flows  between  a  double  range 
of  cliffs  which  sometimes  dip  sheer  down  to  the  water's  edge, 
and  sometimes  recede  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
bed  of  the  river.  For  the  first  live  hundred  and  fifteen  miles 
— that  is,  from  Cairo  to  Edfu — these  cliffs  are  of  fine  white 
limestone ;  then,  for  a  distance  of  sixty-five  miles,  the  lime- 
stone is  superseded  by  a  rich  yellow  sandstone ;  and  this 
again  is  succeeded,  some  sixty -seven  miles  higher  up,  by  the 
red  granite  and  black  basalt  of  Assuan. 

With  such  resources  within  easy  reach,  and  with  the  great 
river  for  a  means  of  transport,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
Egyptians  became  a  nation  of  builders.  In  no  country  an- 
cient or  modern  were  there  so  many  cities,  so  many  temples, 
so  many  tombs.  The  cities  have  become  rubbish -mounds. 
The  tombs  have  been  plundered  for  ages,  and  are  being  plun- 
dered every  day.  The  temples  have  been  ravaged  by  the 
Persian,  the  Assyrian,  and  the  Mohammedan  invader,  de- 
faced by  the  Christian  iconoclast,  and  smashed  up  for  the 
limekiln  by  the  modern  Arab.  Hundreds,  probably  thou- 


40  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

sands,  have  been  utterly  destroyed ;  and  yet  we  stand  amazed 
before  the  splendor  and  number  of  the  wrecks  which  remain. 

In  Upper  Egypt,  those  wrecks  are  noble  ruins  open  to  the 
cloudless  sky,  and  touched  with  the  gold  of  dawn  and  the 
crimson  of  sunset ;  but  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  especially  in 
the  Delta  where  there  is  no  desert,  but  only  one  vast  plain 
of  rich  alluvial  soil,  those  ruins  are  buried  under  the  rubbish 
of  ages,  thus  forming  those  gigantic  mounds  which  are  so 
striking  a  feature  of  the  scenery  between  Alexandria  and 
Cairo.  Nothing  in  Egypt  so  excites  the  curiosity  of  the 
newly  landed  traveller  as  these  gigantic  graves,  some  of 
which  are  identified  with  cities  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
ancient  world,  while  others  are  problems  only  to  be  solved 
at  the  edge  of  the  spade.  He  sees  mounds  everywhere ;  not 
only  in  the  Delta,  but  in  Middle  Egypt,  in  Upper  Egypt,  and 
even  in  Nubia.  And  wherever  he  sees  a  mound,  there,  but 
too  surely,  he  sees  the  native  husbandmen  digging  it  away 
piecemeal  for  brick-dust  manure. 

It  was  in  order  to  rescue  at  least  a  part  of  the  historical 
treasures  entombed  in  these  neglected  mounds,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  mounds  of  the  Delta  and  the  district  of  the  old 
Land  of  Goshen,  that  the  society  known  as  the  Egypt  Ex- 
ploration Fund  was  founded  in  1883,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  late  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson.  An  influential  committee 
was  formed  in  London,  a  subscription  list  was  opened  in 
England  and  America,  and  the  work  of  scientific  exploration 
was  immediately  begun. 

From  that  time  to  this,  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund  has 
sent  out  explorers  every  season,  having  sometimes  two,  and 
even  three,  simultaneously  at  work  in  different  parts  of  the 
Delta.  Each  year  has  been  fruitful  in  discoveries.  Ancient 
geographical  boundaries  have  been  traced;  the  sites  of  fa- 
mous cities  have  been  identified;  sculptures,  inscriptions, 
arms,  papyri,  jewellery,  painted  pottery,  beautiful  objects  in 
glass,  porcelain,  bronze,  gold,  silver,  and  even  textile  fabrics, 
have  been  found ;  a  flood  of  unexpected  light  has  been  cast 
upon  the  Biblical  history  of  the  Hebrews ;  the  early  stages 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT   EGYPT.  41 

of  the  route  of  the  Exodus  have  been  defined  ;  an  important 
chapter  in  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  Greek  epigraphy  has 
been  recovered  from  oblivion ;  and  an  archaeological  survey 
of  the  Delta  has  been  made,  nearly  all  the  larger  mounds 
having  been  measured  and  mapped.  This  survey  is  now 
about  to  be  carried  out  on  a  much  extended  scale,  covering 
the  whole  of  Egypt,  and  including  copies  of  inscriptions, 
photographs  of  monuments,  triangulations,  careful  descrip- 
tions of  the  condition  of  the  ruins,  etc.,  etc.  For  this  impor- 
tant work  two  specially  trained  archaeologists  will  be  de- 
spatched every  season  by  the  Fund. 

It  was,  as  I  have  said,  in  1883  that  the  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund  began  its  labors  in  the  Delta,  the  first  explorer  sent  out 
by  the  society  being  the  eminent  Egpytologist,  M.  Naville,  of 
Geneva.  M.  Naville  selected  as  the  scene  of  his  first  excava- 
tion a  celebrated  mound  in  the  Wady  Tumilat,  between  Za- 
gazig  and  Ismailia ;  a  mound  which  Lepsius  had  conjecturally 
identified  with  "  Raamses,"  one  of  the  twin  "  treasure-cities  " 
built  by  the  forced  labor  of  the  Hebrew  colonists  in  the  time 
of  the  Great  Oppression.  Of  these  it  is  said  in  the  first  chap- 
ter of  Exodus  that  "  they  built  for  Pharaoh  treasure-cities, 
Pithom  and  Raamses  " ;  by  "  treasure  -  cities  "  meaning  for- 
tified magazines,  such  as  the  Egyptians  were  wont  to  erect 
for  the  safe  custody  of  grain 
and  military  stores. 

Now,  the  South-eastern  Delta 
was  for  some  five  hundred  years 
as  much  the  father-land  of  the 
descendants  of  Jacob  as  modern 
Egypt  is  now  the  father -land 
of  the  descendants  of  Amr's 
Arab  hordes.  The  pleasant  past- 
ures of  Goshen  were  theirs  by 
right  of  gift  and  settlement. 
There  they  increased  and  multi- 

PI.AN  OF  THE  "TREASURE -CITY" 

plied,  and   there   for   centuries  OF  PITHOM. 

they    dwelt,    a    favored    and    a         A,  A :  Excavated  store-chambers. 


42  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

prosperous  race.  All  this  time,  while  they  were  happy, 
they  had  no  history.  It  was  only  when  much  fighting  and 
building  had  drained  Egypt  of  men  and  treasure  that  the 
Hebrews  began  to  be  oppressed ;  and  it  is  with  their  oppres- 
sion that  their  history  as  a  nation  may  be  said  to  commence. 
No  part  of  the  Bible  is  more  dramatically  interesting,  or 
more  circumstantially  related,  than  those  chapters  which 
tell  of  their  sufferings,  their  flight,  and  their  escape.  Egyp- 
tologists, Hebraists,  geographers,  and  travellers  have  exhaust- 
ed speculation  as  to  the  road  by  which  they  went  out,  the 
places  at  which  they  halted,  and  the  point  at  which  they 
forded  the  great  water.  That  they  must  have  started  by  way 
of  Wady  Tumilat  is  admitted  by  the  majority  of  Exodus 
theorists.  Then,  as  now,  that  famous  valley  was  by  far  the 
shortest  and  most  direct  route  from  the  old  Land  of  Goshe.n 
to  the  desert.  Then,  as  now,  it  was  watered  by  a  navigable 
canal,  which  in  all  probability  the  Hebrew  settlers  themselves 
helped  to  keep  in  repair,  or  possibly  to  excavate,  and  which 
may  yet  be  traced  for  a  considerable  distance.  Forty  years 
ago  Lepsius  identified  Tell  Abii  Suleiman  at  the  westward 
mouth  of  the  valley,  and  Tell-el-Maskhutah  near  the  east- 
ward end,  with  the  twin  treasure-cities  built  for  Pharaoh  by 
the  persecuted  Israelites ;  and  so  unhesitatingly  were  his 
identifications  accepted  that  these  two  places  have  ever 
since  been  entered  in  maps  and  guide-books  as  "Pithom" 
and  "Raamses."  Even  the  little  railway  station  erected  by 
the  French  engineers  on  the  line  of  the  Fresh-water  Canal  in 
1860  was  called  "  Eamses,"  and  is  so  called  to  this  day.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  recapitulate  the  argument  upon  which  Lep- 
sius based  his  identification ;  but  it  was,  at  all  events,  uni- 
versally accepted.  M.  Naville  went,  therefore,  to  prove  the 
correctness  of  this  argument ;  and  it  was  very  much  to  his 
own  surprise,  and  to  the  surprise  of  all  concerned  in  his  ex- 
pedition, that  he  discovered  it  to  be  erroneous. 

What  M.  Naville  actually  found  under  the  mounds  of 

Maskhutah  was  a  peribolos  wall,  the  site  of  a  temple,  a  dro- 

.  mos,  a  camp,  some  ruins  of  a  city,  and  a  series  of  most 


THE  BURIED   CITIES  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT  43 

curious  subterraneous  structures,  entirely  unlike  any  archi- 
tectural remains  ever  discovered  in  Egypt  or  elsewhere. 
The  peribolos  wall,  twenty -four  feet  in  thickness,  enclosed 


TELL-EL-MASKHUTAH. 


'a  quadrangular  space  of  about  fifty -five  thousand  square 
yards.  The  temple,  which  occupied  one  corner,  though 
small,  was  originally  surrounded  by  an  outer  wall  of  brick- 
work, the  inner  walls  being  of  fine  Turah  limestone.  Both 
temple  and  city  proved  to  have  been  founded  by  Kameses 
II.,  the  names  and  titles  of  that  Pharaoh  being  the  ear- 
liest recorded  in  the  inscriptions  discovered.  Statues,  bas- 
relief  sculptures,  and  hieroglyphic  texts  of  various  kings, 
priests,  and  officials  of  subsequent  periods  were  also  found 
upon  the  spot.  Among  these  must  be  especially  noted  part 
of  a  dedicatory  tablet  of  Sheshonk  I.,  the  Biblical  Shishak, 
and  a  broken  colossus  of  Osorkon  II.,  both  of  the  Twenty-sec- 
ond Dynasty;  two  statues  of  functionaries,  engraved  with 


44  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

important  inscriptions ;  some  remains  of  an  admirably  sculp- 
tured and  fully  gilt  wall  -  screen  and  pillar  of  Nectanebo  I. 
(Thirtieth  Dynasty);  and  a  magnificent  granite  stela  of  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,  which  is  not  only  the  largest  Ptolemaic 
tablet  known,  but  is  also  historically  the  most  interesting. 
All  the  foregoing  kings  appear  to  have  embellished  the  tem- 
ple. Besides  readable  inscriptions  of  various  periods,  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  minute  fragments,  some  yet  showing  a 
hieroglyph  or  two,  were  found  built  into  walls  or  reduced  to 
gravel  chips.  This  barbarism  was  the  work  of  the  Romans, 
who,  being  the  last  occupants  of  the  site,  appear  to  have 
smashed  up  any  available  material  in  order  to  level  the 
ground  for  their  camp.  Thus  the  history  of  the  place  be- 
gins with  Rameses  II.,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Great  Oppres- 
sion, about  1400  B.C.,  and  ends  with  a  Roman  milestone  of 
Galerius  Maximian  and  Severus,  about  A.D.  306  or  307. 

The  temple  was  dedicated  to  Turn,  (") the  god  of  the  set- 
ting sun ;  Turn  being  the  patron  deity  of  the  town  and  the 
surrounding  district.  Now,  as  this  place  was  not  only  a 
store-fort  but  a  sanctuary,  so  also  it  had  a  secular  name  and 
a  sacred  name ;  like  our  own  venerable  English  abbey-town 
of  Verulam,  which  is  also  called  St.  Albans.  Its  secular 
name  proved  to  be  "  Thukut "  or  "  Sukut,"  ( I2)  and  its  sacred 
name  "  Pa-Turn."  These  particulars  we  learn  from  inscrip- 
tions found  upon  the  spot. 

Engraved,  for  instance,  on  a  black  granite  statue  of  a  de- 
ceased prince  and  high-priest  named  Aak,  we  find  a  prayer  in 
which  he  implores  "all  the  priests  who  go  into  the  sacred 
abode  of  Turn,  the  great  god  of  Sukut,"  to  pronounce  a  cer- 
tain funerary  formula  for  his  benefit ;  while  a  fragment  of 
another  statue  is  inscribed  with  the  names  and  titles  of 
one  Pames  Isis,  who  was  an  "  official  of  Turn  of  Sukut  and 
governor  of  the  storehouse."  In  these  two  inscriptions  (to 
say  nothing  of  several  others)  three  important  facts  are  re- 
corded :  namely,  that  the  place  was  a  "  storehouse,"  that  its 
sacred  name  was  Pa-Turn;  and  that  its  secular  name,  also 
the  name  of  the  surrounding  district,  was  Sukut. 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


45 


Now,  "  Pa-Turn "  means  the  House,  or  Abode,  of  Turn ; 
"  Pa  "  being  the  Egyptian  word  for  house,  or  abode.  Thus, 
the  temple  gave  its  name  to  the  city,  just  as  "  Pa-Bast " — the 
Abode  of  Bast — gave  its  name  to  the  city  which  the  Greeks 
called  Bubastis.  But  as  the  Greeks,  according  to  the  Greek 
method  of  transcription,  rendered  "Pa"  by  "Bu,"  and  "Bast" 
by  "  Bastis,"  so  the  Hebrews,  according  to  the  Hebrew  meth- 
od of  transcription,  rendered  "Pa"  by  "Pi,"  and  "Bast"  by 
"Beseth."  Thus  it  is  as  "Pi-Beseth"  that  we  read  of  Bubastis 
in  the  Bible.  And  so,  in  like  manner,  the  Hebrews  changed 
"Pa"  into  "Pi,"  and  "Turn"  into  "Thorn,"  when  dealing  with 
"  Pa-Turn,"  of  which  they  made  "Pi-Thorn."  Accordingly,  it 
is  of  this  very  store-fort,  "  Pa-Turn,"  that  we  read  in  the  pas- 


THK    STORE-CELLARS   OF   PITHOM. 


sage  which  I  have  already  quoted  from  the  first  chapter  of 
Exodus :  "  And  they  built  for  Pharaoh  treasure  -  cities,  Pi- 
thorn  and  Raamses." 


46  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

So,  although  Lepsius  was  mistaken  in  identifying  Tell-el- 
Maskhutah  with  "  Raamses,"  he  was  not  so  very  far  wrong 
after  all.  The  place  was  not  "  Raamses,"  but  it  was  "  Pi- 
thom." 

But  this  town  had  also  a  secular  name — Sukut.  Now 
"Pa-Turn  of  Sukut"  had  been  known  to  Egyptologists  for 
many  years  in  certain  geographical  lists  of  temples  and  local 
festivals  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  various  temples  in  Upper 
Egypt ;  and  Dr.  Brugsch,  our  greatest  authority  on  ancient 
Egyptian  topography,  had  long  ago  identified  it  with  "  Pi- 
thom  of  Succoth."  But  till  M.  Naville  excavated  Tell-el-Mask- 
hutah,  Pithom  of  Succoth  was  but  a  name  and  a  theory.  Now 
Pithom  is  a  fact,  and  Sukut  is  a  fact ;  and  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  departing  Hebrews  "journeyed  from  Raam- 
ses  to  Succoth  "  on  their  way  to  Etham  and  Pihahiroth,  it  at 
once  becomes  evident  that  we  have  not  only  found  one  of  the 
"  treasure-cities  "  built  by  their  hands,  but  that  we  have  iden- 
tified the  district  in  which  that  great  mixed  multitude  first 
halted  to  rest  by  the  way.  Identifying  this  district,  we  also 
identify  the  route  of  the  Exodus.  We  know,  in  fact,  that 
they  went  out  by  way  of  Wady  Tumilat  in  the  direction  of 
the  modern  town  of  Isma'ilia,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  old 
Bitter  Lakes  which,  according  to  the  majority  of  geologists, 
now  occupy  what  was  originally  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez.  They  crossed,  in  all  probability,  near  Shaliif ;  but  for 
clearer  insight  into  this  matter  we  must  wait  for  further  ex- 
plorations and  "  more  light." 

But  our  "  treasure-city  "  had  yet  another  name — a  name  by 
which  it  was  known  in  later  times,  under  the  Ptolemies  and 
under  the  Romans;  and  this  more  recent  name  was  Hero- 
opolis.  A  rude  graffito,  scratched  apparently  by  a  Roman 
soldier,  on  one  of  the  uprights  of  a  limestone  door-way,  when 
the  place  had  been  converted  into  a  Roman  camp,  gives  us 
this  name  under  the  form  of  "  Ero  Castra ";  and  it  is  as 
"  Heroopolis "  that  we  read  of  Pithom  in  the  Septuagint 
translation,  where  it  is  said,  in  the  forty-sixth  chapter  of 
Genesis,  that  Joseph  "  made  ready  his  chariot,,  and  went  up  to 


THE   BURIED  CITIES   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  47 


FALLEN    COLOSSUS   OF    MEKMASHIU.       (THIRTEENTH    DYNASTY.) 

This  magnificent  colossal  statue  is  one  of  a  pair  which  yet  lie  prostrate  in  the  ruins 
of  the  great  Temple  of  Tanis.  It  represents  a  king  of  whom  history  has  pre- 
served no  record,  and  who  would  be  unknown  but  for  these  twin  memorials.  The 
statues,  if  raised  from  the  ground,  would  sit  twelve  feet  high  without  counting 
the  plinths.  The  modelling  and  anatomy  are  admirable,  and  the  polished  sur- 
faces are  as  lustrous  to  this  day  as  when  first  executed. 


Heroopolis  to  meet  Jacob  his  father."  This,  however,  was  a 
verbal  anachronism  on  the  part  of  the  Septuagint ;  for  there 
was  neither  a  Pithom  nor  a  Heroopolis  in  the  time  of  Joseph, 
but  only  a  "  Land  of  Goshen,"  as  correctly  given  in  the  He- 
brew original.  The  anachronism  is,  however,  valuable,  since 
it  shows  that  Pithom  was  already  known  as  Heroopolis  in 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  ('")  As  for  the  historical 
tablet  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  it  is  of  great  importance. 


48  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

It  records  how  this  king  "  rebuilt  the  Abode  of  Turn,"  and 
how  one  of  his  generals  "  captured  elephants  for  his  Majesty  " 
on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  and  brought  them  hither  in  trans- 
port ships  by  way  of  the  canal.  That  canal  was  the  ancient 
Pharaonic  canal,  the  bed  of  which  is  yet  distinctly  traceable, 
following  the  same  direction  as  the  present  Sweet-water 
Canal  in  the  Wady  Tumilat.  This  tablet  also  mentions  a 
place  called  "  Pikerehet,"  beyond  Pithom  and  nearer  to  the 
Ked  Sea,  which  seems  to  be  identical  with  Pihahiroth,  where 
the  Israelites  encamped  between  Migdol  and  the  sea. 

The  mounds  of  Maskhutah,  as  shown  in  our  illustration, 
may  be  described  as  a  series  of  undulating  sand  hillocks. 
In  the  distance  is  seen  the  little  railway  station,  now  dis- 
used ;  and  here  and  there  a  dark  pit  excavated  in  the  mid- 
dle distance  marks  one  of  the  store-chambers,  or  cellars, 
opened  by  M.  JSTaville.  Not  only  these  cellars,  but  also  the 
great  wall  of  circuit  twenty -four  feet  in  thickness,  were 
probably  the  work  of  the  oppressed  Hebrews. 

These  subterraneous  store-chambers,  magazines,  granaries, 
or  whatever  it  may  please  us  to  call  them,  are  solidly  built 
square  chambers  of  various  sizes,  divided  by  massive  parti- 
tion walls  about  ten  feet  in  thickness,  without  doors  or  any 
kind  of  communication,  evidently  destined  to  be  filled  and 
emptied  from  the  top  by  means  of  trap-doors  and  ladders. 
Except  the  corner  occupied  by  the  temple,  the  whole  area 
of  the  great  walled  enclosure  is  honey-combed  with  these 
cellars. 

They  are,  as  I  have  said,  well  and  solidly  built.  The  bricks 
are  large,  and  are  made  of  Nile  mud  pressed  in  a  wooden 
mould  and  dried  in  the  sun.  Also  they  are  bedded  in  with 
mortar,  which  is  not  common,  the  ordinary  method  being  to 
bed  them  with  mud,  which  dries  immediately,  and  holds  al- 
most as  tenaciously  as  mortar.  And  this  reminds  us  that 
Pharaoh's  overseers  "made  the  children  of  Israel  to  serve 
with  rigor,  and  made  their  lives  bitter  with  hard  bondage  in 
mortar  and  in  brick."  We  remember  all  the  details  of  that 
pitiful  story — how  the  straw  became  exhausted;  how  the 


THE   BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  49 

poor  souls  were  driven  forth  to  gather  in  stubble  for  mixino- 
with  their  clay;  and  yet  how  they  were  required  to  give 
in  as  large  a  tale  of  bricks  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work  as 
if  the  straw  had  been  duly  provided. 

Now,  it  is  a  very  curious  and  interesting  fact  that  the 
Pithom  bricks  are  of  three  qualities.  In  the  lower  courses 
of  these  massive  cellar  walls  they  are  mixed  with  chopped 
straw ;  higher  up,  when  the  straw  may  be  supposed  to  have 


PLAN    OF  THE    RUINS    OF   THE    GREAT    TEMPLE    OF   TANIS. 

The  above  is  reduced  from  Mr.  Petrie's  large  plan  in  "Tanis,"  Part  I.,  showing  the 
position  of  the  ruins  within  the  enclosure  wall,  the  obelisks  being  figured  as  they 
lie.  The  private  houses  of  Roman  date  are  marked  in  thicker  lines  than  the  ruins 
of  the  temple ;  and  the  dotted  lines  show  the  course  of  Mr.  Petrie's  trenches, 
which  were  thirty-five  in  number,  from  seven  to  twenty-four  feet  in  depth,  and 
from  fifty  to  four  hundred  feet  in  length.  The  main  entrance-pylon,  where  a  few 
blocks  yet  stand  in  situ,  is  at  the  west  end  of  the  great  enclosure  wall,  the  north 
gate  being  a  later  opening  cut  in  Roman  times.  The  length  of  the  temple  was 
one  thousand  feet,  by  seven  hundred  feet  in  breadth;  and  the  great  enclosure 
wall  added  by  Pteebkhanu,  an  obscure  king  of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty,  is  no  less 
than  eighty  feet  thick  on  the  south  side.  The  avenue  (necessarily  omitted  in  our 
illustration)  was  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  in  length. 


50  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

run  short,  the  clay  is  found  to  be  mixed  with  reeds — the  same 
kind  of  reeds  which  grow  to  this  day  in  the  bed  of  the  old 
Pharaonic  canal,  and  which  are  translated  as  "stubble"  in 
the  Bible.  Finally,  when  the  last  reeds  were  used  up,  the 
bricks  of  the  uppermost  courses  consist  of  mere  Nile  mud, 
with  no  binding  substance  whatever. 

So  here  we  have  the  whole  pathetic  Bible  narrative  sur- 
viving in  solid  evidence  to  the  present  time.  "We  go  down 
to  the  bottom  of  one  of  these  cellars.  We  see  the  good  bricks 
for  which  the  straw  was  provided.  Some  few  feet  higher  we 
see  those  for  which  the  wretched  Hebrews  had  to  seek  reeds, 
or  stubble.  We  hear  them  cry  aloud,  "  Can  we  make  bricks 
without  straw  ?" 

Lastly,  we  see  the  bricks  Avhich  they  had  to  make,  and  did 
make,  without  straw,  while  their  hands  were  bleeding  and 
their  hearts  were  breaking.  Shakespeare,  in  one  of  his  most 
familiar  passages,  tells  us  of  "  sermons  in  stones ;"  but  here 
we  have  a  sermon  in  bricks,  and  not  only  a  sermon,  but  a 
practical  historical  commentary  of  the  highest  importance 
and  interest. 

The  discovery  of  Pithom  in  1883  was  followed  in  1884  by 
Mr.  Petrie's  excavations  at  Tanis;  again  by  his  discovery 
of  Naukratis  in  1885,  and  of  the  palace-fort  of  Daphna3  in 
1886.  Then  followed,  in  1887,  M.  Naville's  discovery  of  the 
Jewish  cemetery  in  which  were  interred  the  followers  of 
the  high-priest  Onias,  who  fled  from  Syria,  according  to  Jo- 
sephus,  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometer ;  ( u )  and,  at 
the  latter  end  of  the  same  season,  came  the  discovery  of  the 
great  temple  of  Bubastis. 

It  was,  then,  in  1884  that  Mr.  Petrie  worked  for  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund  on  the  site  of  that  famous  city  called 
in  Egyptian  Ta-an,  or  Tsan ;  transcribed  as  "  Tanis  "  by  the 
Greeks,  and  rendered  in  the  Hebrew  as  "  Zoan."  It  yet  pre- 
serves an  echo  of  these  ancient  names  as  the  Arab  village  of 
"  San."  This  site,  historically  and  Biblically  the  most  inter- 
esting in  Egypt,  is  the  least  known  to  visitors.  It  enjoys  an 
evil  reputation  for  rain,  east  winds,  and  fever ;  it  is  very  diffi- 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT   EGYPT. 


51 


cult  of  access ;  and  it  is  entirely  without  resources  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  travellers.  Not  many  tourists  care  to  encoun- 
ter a  dreary  railway  trip  followed  by  eight  or  ten  hours  in  a 


SHHINE    OP   RAMESES    II.   IN    THE    RUINS    OF   TANIS.       (SANDSTONE.) 

The  shrine  shown  in  this  illustration  is  one  of  a  pair  placed  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  great  avenue  of  statues,  sphinxes,  and  obelisks  which  led  to  the  Temple. 
These  shrines  are  of  quartzite  sandstone,  each  being  cut  in  a  single  block.  The 
surface  is  most  delicately  sculptured  with  groups  of  figures  and  hieroglyphic 
texts ;  while  inside,  enthroned  at  the  upper  end,  is  a  triad  of  deities.  The  com- 
panion shrine  to  the  above  has  been  smashed  to  pieces. 


small  row-boat,  with  no  inn  and  no  prospect  of  anything  but 
salt  fish  to  eat  at  the  end  of  the  journey.  The  daring  few 
take  tents  and  provisions  with  them ;  and  those  few  are  most- 
ly sportsmen,  attracted  less  by  the  antiquities  of  San-el-IIagar 
than  by  the  aquatic  birds  which  frequent  the  adjacent  lake. 
Mr.  Petrie  went  to  this  desolate  spot  provided  not  only  with 
a  sufficient  store  of  canned  soups,  meats,  and  vegetables, 
jams,  biscuits,  and  the  like,  but  also  with  scientific  instru- 


52  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

ments,  carpenters'  tools,  and  a  large  quantity  of  iron  roofing 
for  the  mud-brick  dwelling  which  he  had  to  build  for  himself 
and  his  overseer.  The  great  temple  of  Tanis-Zoan  was  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  splendid  in  Egypt.  It  dated  ap- 
parently from  the  Pyramid  Period,  the  earliest  royal  name 
found  in  the  ruins  being  that  of  Pepi  Merira  of  the  Sixth  Dy- 
nasty. It  was,  however,  rebuilt  by  Amenemhat  I.  and  his 
successors  of  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  dynasties,  many  of 
whom  have  left  evidences  of  their  work  in  the  shape  of  colossal 
statues,  obelisks,  and  the  like.  Next  came  Rameses  II.,  who 
seems  to  have  pulled  the  whole  temple  to  pieces,  in  order  to 
reconstruct  it  according  to  the  style  of  the  Nineteenth  Dy- 
nasty ;  covering  its  architraves  with  huge  hieroglyphic  in- 
scriptions, and  adorning  it  with  a  forest  of  obelisks  and  an 
army  of  colossal  portrait  statues  of  himself.  It  now  strews 
the  ground,  an  utter  wreck,  covering  a  space  of  one  thousand 
feet  from  end  to  end. 

Mr.  Petrie  turned,  cleaned,  and  planned  every  stone  in  this 
immense  ruin,  and  copied  every  hieroglyphic  inscription 
sculptured  upon  the  surfaces  of  those  fallen  blocks,  obelisks, 
cornices,  and  statues.  In  the  course  of  this  laborious  task  he 
brought  to  light  an  extraordinary  number  of  reworked  stones 
of  all  periods,  each  stone  a  fragment  torn  from  a  page  of  his- 
tor}r.  Obelisks,  statues,  and  historical  tablets  prove  to  have 
been  cut  up  into  lengths,  dressed  down,  and  built  in  with  as 
little  ceremony  as  though  they  were  blocks  fresh  from  the 
quarry.  Some  of  these  destroyed  obelisks  are  palimpsests  in 
stone.  They  date  from  the  important  times  of  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  dynasties,  and  were  originally  covered  from  top 
to  bottom  on  all  four  sides  with  inscriptions  elaborately  en- 
graved in  small  hieroglyphs  about  one  inch  in  length.  These 
inscriptions  prove  to  have  been  effaced  by  Rameses  II.,  who 
re-engraved  the  surfaces  with  his  own  titles  and  cartouches, 
cut  on  a  large  scale.  Finally,  some  three  centuries  later,  a 
Sheshonk,  or  an  Osorkon,  with  a  sacrilegious  recklessness  wor- 
thy of  a  Turkish  pasha,  hewed  them  in  pieces  to  build  a  wall 
and  a  gate- way.  The  historical  stela3,  apparently  a  uniform 


THE  BURIED  CITIES  OF   ANCIENT  EGYPT.  53 

series  of  large  size,  were  found  in  halves,  none  of  which  match, 
but  their  legends  seem  to  have  been  already  corroded  and  illeg- 
ible when  they  were  thus  utilized.  The  other  halves  must  eith- 
er have  been  destroyed  or  are  yet  imbedded  in  the  structure. 
Here  also  Mr.  Petrie  discovered  the  remains  of  the  largest 
colossus  ever  sculptured  by  the  hand  of  man.  This  huge 
figure  represented  Eameses  II.  in  that  position  known  as 
"the  hieratic  attitude ;"  that  is  to  say,  with  the  arms  straight- 
ened to  the  sides,  and  the  left  foot  advanced  in  the  act  of 
walking.  It  had  been  cut  up  by  Osorkon  II.,  of  the  Twenty- 
second  Dynasty,  to  build  a  pylon  gate-way ;  and  it  was  from 
the  fallen  blocks  of  this  gate-way  that  Mr.  Petrie  recognized 
what  it  had  originally  been.  Among  these  fragments  were 
found  an  ear,  part  of  a  foot,  pieces  of  an  arm,  part  of  the  pi- 
laster which  supported  the  statue  up  the  back,  and  part  of 
the  breast,  on  which  are  carved  the  royal  ovals.  Ex  pede 
Herculem.  These  fragments  (mere  chips  of  a  few  tons  each), 
although  they  represent  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the 
whole,  enabled  Mr.  Petrie  to  measure,  describe,  and  weigh  the 
shattered  giant  with  absolute  certainty.  He  proved  to  have 
been  the  most  stupendous  colossus  known.  Those  statues 
which  approach  nearest  to  him  in  size  are  the  colossi  of  Abii- 
Simbel,  the  torso  of  the  Kamesseum,  and  the  colossi  of  the 
Plain.  These,  however,  are  all  seated  figures,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  torso,  are  executed  in  comparatively  soft 
materials.  But  the  Kameses  of  Tanis  was  not  only  sculpt- 
ured in  the  obdurate  red  granite  of  Assuan,  and  designed 
upon  a  larger  scale  than  any  of  these,  but  he  stood  erect 
and  crowned,  ninety-two  feet  high  from  top  to  toe,  or  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high,  including  his  pedestal. 
This  is  nearly  fifty  feet  higher  than  the  obelisk  in  Central 
Park,  New  York,  or  than  its  fellow,  the  British  obelisk  on 
the  Thames  embankment.  The  minimum  weight  of  the 
whole  mass  is  calculated  by  Mr.  Petrie  at  twelve  hundred 
tons,  this  being  three  hundred  and  thirteen  tons  more  than 
the  estimated  weight  of  the  colossus  of  the  Ramesseum,  when 
entire.  "We  ask  ourselves  with  amazement  how  so  huge  a 


54  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

monolith  was  extracted  unbroken  from  the  quarry ;  how  it 
was  floated  from  Assuan  to  Tanis ;  how  it  was  raised  into  its 
place  when  it  reached  its  destination.  "  The  effect,"  wrote 
Mr.  Flinders  Petrie,  "  when  there  were  no  high  mounds  here, 
must  have  been  astounding.  The  temple  was  probably  not 
more  than  fifty  feet  high,  and  the  tallest  Tanis  obelisks  were 
less  than  fifty  feet  high.  The  statue  must,  therefore,  have 
towered  some  sixty -five  feet  above  all  its  surroundings,  and 
have  been  visible  for  many  miles  across  the  plain."(1B)  These 
measurements  are  calculated  from  the  foot,  one  large  block 
having  the  toes  of  the  right  foot  nearly  complete. 
We  have  here  an  outline  of  the  toes  drawn  to  scale.  They 


OUTLINE  OP  TOES  OF  COLOSSUS. 


have  been  cut  across  the  ends  of  the  nails,  and  shaved  up  the 
sides  by  the  saw  of  the  mason.  The  great  toe  measured 
fourteen  inches  and  seven-eighths,  the  second  toe  twelve 
inches  and  five-eighths,  the  third  toe  ten  inches  and  four- 
eighths,  the  fourth  toe  eleven  inches  and  two-eighths,  and 
the  little  toe  eight  inches  and  four-eighths.  The  whole  foot, 
when  perfect,  was  fifty-seven  inches  and  two-eighths  in  length. 
Although  it  is  impossible  now  to  prove  that  this  gigantic 
statue  was  cut  from  a  single  block,  there  cannot  be  any  reason- 
able doubt  of  the  fact.  Every  known  colossal  statue  in  Egypt 
is  monolithic,  and  it  is  inconceivable  that  the  great  Tanis 
colossus  should  have  been  an  exception  to  this  universal  rule. 


Desert  Hare. 
Kohl  Pot. 

Infant  Horus.— (Bronze.) 


Piece  of  Porcelain  Sceptre 

Alabaster  Capital. 
Apis  Amulet. -(Pottery.) 
Calyx  Capital. — (Bronze.) 


Isis  and  Infant  Horus. 


Bowl.—  (Oreenntone-i 


Ta-ur.— (Pottery.) 


Ceramic  Jar.  Calyx  Cap!tal.-(Bronze.)    Tahutl  (Thoth).^-(Green«ton»-w»rf. 


GROUP  OF   OBJECTS   DISCOVERED   IN   A   PRIVATE   HOUSE   AT   TANIS  (PERIOD,  THIRTIETH   DYNASTY). 


THE  BURIED   CITIES  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  57 

Many  very  precious  things  were  found  by  Mr.  Petrie  in 
the  course  of  his  work  at  Tanis.  In  the  cellars  of  some  large 
private  mansions  which  perished  in  the  great  conflagration 
by  which  the  city  was  destroyed  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Diocletian,  were  discovered  a  mass  of  very  interesting  do- 
mestic relics,  such  as  small  household  deities  in  bronze,  ala- 
baster, and  glazed  ware ;  mortars,  moulds,  works  of  art  in 
sculpture  and  terra-cotta,  and  a  great  abundance  of  pottery, 
both  coarse  and  fine.  The  house  of  one  Bakakhiu  contained 
a  remarkable  portrait  statuette  of  himself ;  and  in  that  of  his 
next-door  neighbor  was  found  a  zodiac  painted  in  gold  and 
colors  upon  a  sheet  of  thin  glass,  this  being  the  only  known 
example  of  ancient  glass-painting.  From  this  house  came 
the  most  important  discovery  of  all ;  namely,  seven  ancient 
waste-paper  baskets  full  of  letters,  deeds,  memoranda,  and 
other  MSS.  Some  were  on  papyrus,  and  some  on  parch- 
ment ;  some  were  written  in  Greek,  and  some  in  the  old 
Egyptian  language,  these  last  being  penned  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic, hieratic,  and  demotic  scripts.  These  priceless  docu- 
ments were  alone  worth  the  whole  cost  of  the  expedition. 
One  proves  to  be  a  mathematical  treatise ;  another  is  an  al- 
manac ;  and  another  is  a  syllabary.  The  first  is  in  the  hands 
of  Professor  Eevillout,  of  the  Louvre,  who  has  offered  to 
translate  it.  The  second  has  been  translated  by  Mr.  Petrie, 
and  the  third  by  Mr.  Frank  Llewellyn  Griffith.  The  two  lat- 
ter have  been  quite  recently  published  as  an  extra  volume 
by  the  Committee  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund ;  and  the 
society  hopes  in  time  to  publish  fac-similes  and  translations 
of  the  entire  collection. 

Some  very  interesting  work  was  done  by  M.  Naville  in  the 
course  of  the  same  season  in  the  Eastern  Delta,  where,  at  a 
place  called  Saft  el-Henneh,  he  excavated  the  ruins  of  a 
black  basalt  temple  of  Kameses  II.,  and  discovered  the  re- 
mains of  a  beautiful  monolithic  shrine  erected  by  Xectanebo 
II.,  the  last  of  the  native  Pharaohs.  What  the  inscription 
of  Heliodorus  was  to  Mr.  Petrie  at  Naukratis,  these  frag- 
ments of  the  granite  shrine  were  to  M.  Naville  at  Saft  el- 
4-2 


58  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

Henneh.  For  centuries  they  had  lain  neglected  in  an  open 
field,  where  for  half  the  year  they  were  covered  by  the  wa- 
ters of  the  inundation ;  yet  all  this  time  they  held  a  secret  as 
precious  in  its  way  as  that  of  Naukratis — the  secret  of  the 
ancient  city  buried  in  the  neighboring  mound.  That  city 
was  none  other  than  Goshen,  the  capital  town  of  that  Land 
of  Goshen  which  was  the  special  home  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 
I  may  add  that,  although  M.  Naville  hesitates  to  positively 
identify  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  "  Kes,"  or  Goshen, 
with  that  of  "  Raamses,"  there  is  very  strong  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  Rameses  II.  rebuilt  the  place,  and  gave  it  his 
own  name,  and  that  in  "  Kes,"  "  Goshen  "  (now  Saft  el-Hen- 
neh),  we  have  the  site  of  that  other  "  treasure-city  "  built  by 
the  Hebrews  at  the  time  of  the  Great  Oppression.  (") 

The  traveller  who  should  turn  his  back  upon  Saft  el-Hen- 
neh  and  journey  northward  as  far  as  the  shores  of  Lake 
Menzaleh,  would  there  find  himself  upon  the  scene  of  Mr. 
Petrie's  work  in  1886,  and  at  the  foot  of  Tell  Defenneh. 
Now,  Tell  Defenneh  is  a  large  mound,  or  group  of  mounds, 
situate  close  to  Lake  Menzaleh,  at  the  extreme  north-eastern 
corner  of  the  Delta ;  and  the  name  of  this  group  of  mounds, 
"  Defenneh,"  is  a  corrupt  Arab  version  of  "  Daphnse,"  the 
"  Daphnse  of  Pelusium  "  of  the  Greek  historians.  The  iden- 
tity of  Defenneh  and  Daphnae  has  never  tyeen  questioned 
by  scholars,  and  the  identity  of  both  with  the  Biblical  Tah- 
panhes  has  also  been  admitted  by  the  majority  of  Bible 
commentators. 

The  history  of  Daphnae  begins  with  Psammetichus  L, 
Prince  of  Sa'is  and  Memphis,  who  fought  his  way  to  the 
throne  by  the  aid  of  Carian  and  Ionian  mercenary  troops, 
and  founded  the  Twenty -sixth  Egyptian  Dynasty.  This 
event  dates  from  about  665  B.C.  Here  Psammetichus  con- 
structed two  large  camps  for  the  permanent  accommoda- 
tion of  his  foreign  soldiers,  one  on  each  bank  of  the  Pelu- 
siac  branch  of  the  Nile-,  and  here  they  founded  a  large 
military  colony.  In  course  of  time,  a  Greek  town  sprang 
up  in  the  neighboring  plain.  This  was  the  earliest  legalized 


GROUP    OF    OBJECTS    CHIEFLY    FOUND    IN    THE    HOUSE    OF    DAKAKHIU. 

Portrait  statuette  of  Bakakliiu  in  Roman  costume ;  large  statuette  of  Thotli ;  group  of  four  smaller  gods ; 
basalt  mortar,  cups,  stone  mould,  grotesque  jar,  three  Apis  .tablets,  bas-relief  sculpture  of  winged 
sphinx  with  mural  crown,  emblematic  of  the  city  of  Tautis,  statuete  of  an  unnamed  king  in  Pharaonic 
costume,  etc.,  etc. 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT   EGYPT. 


61 


settlement  of  Greeks  in  Egypt — a  settlement  ninety  years 
earlier  than  that  of  Naukratis. 

The  foreigners  continued  to  occupy  Daphnae  for  nearly  a 
century,  till  King  Amasis,  the  fourth  successor  of  Psammeti- 


IRY.       (GREAT   TKMPLE    OF    TAXIS.) 


chus,  removed  them  to  Memphis.  Now,  the  immediate  pre- 
decessor of  Amasis  was  IJabra,  called  by  the  Greek  "  Apries," 
and  in  the  Bible  "  Hophra."  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
Apries,  about  585  B.C.,  that  Jerusalem  was  besieged  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who  took  King  Zedekiah  captive,  put  out  his 
eyes,  and  bore  him  away,  with  the  bulk  of  the  Jewish  citi- 
zens, to  Babylon.  But  Zedekiah's  daughters  were  left  be- 
hind in  Jerusalem,  then  occupied  by  a  Chaldean  garrison  un- 
der a  Chaldean  governor.  It  was  a  time  of  plot  and  strife 
and  disorder ;  and  finally  Johanan,  the  son  of  Kareah,  act- 
ing as  the  guardian  and  adviser  of  the  forlorn  princesses, 


62  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

conveyed  them  for  safety  to  Egypt.  Their  flight  may  be 
described  as  a  later  Exodus — an  Exodus  from  Syria  to  Egypt, 
instead  of  from  Egypt  to  Syria;  for  with  them  went  "all 
the  remnant  of  Judah,  and  all  the  captains  of  the  forces ;" 
a  mixed  multitude,  in  fact,  consisting  mainly  of  old  men, 
women,  and  children,  and  such  of  the  citizens  as  the  sword 
and  chains  of  the  conqueror  had  spared.  Convinced  of  the 
impolicy  of  rousing  the  wrath  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jeremiah 
vehemently  opposed  the  project  of  Johanan,  and  prophesied 
against  it,  saying : 

"  And  now  therefore  hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  rem- 
nant of  Judah ;  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Is- 
rael ;  If  ye  wholly  set  your  faces  to  enter  into  Egypt,  and 
go  to  sojourn  there ; 

"Then  shall  it  come  to  pass,  that  the  sword,  which  ye 
feared,  shall  overtake'  you  there  in  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and 
the  famine,  whereof  ye  were  afraid,  shall  follow  close  after 
you  there  in  Egypt ;  and  there  ye  shall  die. 

"  So  shall  it  be  with  all  the  men  that  set  their  faces  to  go 
into  Egypt  to  sojourn  there ;  they  shall  die  by  the  sword, 
by  the  famine,  and  by  the  pestilence:  and  none  of  them 
shall  remain  or  escape  from  the  evil  that  I  will  bring  upon 
them."* 

Johanan  refused,  however,  to  listen  to  Jeremiah,  who, 
sorely  against  his  will,  threw  in  his  lot  with  that  of  his 
brethren,  and  went  across  the  frontier.  Meanwhile  Apries, 
with  royal  hospitality,  placed  his  palace  of  Daphna3  at  the 
disposal  of  the  fugitive  princesses,  and  granted  a  large  tract 
of  land  to  their  followers.  But  Jeremiah  continued  to  pro- 
phesy the  pursuit  of  the  Babylonian  host,  and  lifted  up  his 
warning  voice  upon  the  very  threshold  of  the  palace  of 
Pharaoh.  The  whole  scene  is  thus  related  in  the  forty-third 
chapter  of  the  Book  of  Jeremiah,  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth, 
tenth,  and  eleventh  verses : 

"  So  they  came  into  the  land  of  Egypt ;  for  they  obeyed 


f  Jeremiah,  chap,  xlii.,  verses  15  and  16. 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  63 

not  the  voice  of  the  Lord.  Thus  came  they,  even  unto  Tah- 
panhes. 

"Then  came  the  word  of  the  Lord  unto  Jeremiah  in  Tah- 
panhes,  saying, 

"  Take  great  stones  in  thine  hand,  and  hide  them  in  mor- 
tar, in  the  brickwork  which  is  at  the  entry  of  Pharaoh's 
house  in  Tahpanhes,  in  the  sight  of  the  men  of  Judah ; 

"  And  say  unto  them,  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the 
God  of  Israel ;  Behold,  I  will  send  and  take  Nebuchadrezzar 
the  King  of  Babylon,  my  servant,  and  will  set  his  throne 
upon  these  stones  that  I  have  hid ;  and  he  shall  spread  his 
royal  pavilion  over  them. 

"  And  he  shall  come,  and  shall  smite  the  land  of  Egypt ; 
such  as  are  for  death  shall  be  given  to  death,  and  such  as  are 
for  captivity  to  captivity,  and  such  as  are  for  the  sword  to 
the  sword." 

I  quote  from  the  Eevised  Version ;  and  it  must  be  particu- 
larly noted  that  there  is  an  alternative  reading  given  'in  the 
margin,  where  the  "  brick-work "  which  is  at  the  entry  of 
Pharaoh's  House  is  rendered  as  the  "pavement "  or  "square." 

Upon  what  happened  after  this,  the  Bible  is  silent ;  and 
beyond  the  scant  record  of  this  brief  chronicle,  we  only  know 
that  Tahpanhes  and  Daphnae  were  one  and  the  same,  and  that 
Tell  Defenneh  marks  this  interesting  meeting-point  of  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  Assyrian,  and  Hebrew  history.  Mr.  Petrie  went 
therefore  to  Tell  Defenneh  to  prove  or  disprove  an  accepted 
identification.  There,  in  the  midst  of  an  arid  waste,  half 
marsh,  half  desert — far  from  roads,  villages,  or  cultivated  soil 
— in  view  of  an  horizon  bounded  by  the  heron-haunted  lagoons 
of  Lake  Menzaleh  and  the  mud-swamps  of  the  plain  of  Pelu- 
sium— he  found  three  groups  of  mounds.  These  groups  lay 
from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  apart,  the  intermediate  flat  being 
covered  with  stone  chips,  potsherds,  and  the  remains  of  brick 
foundations.  These  chips,  potsherds,  and  foundations  mark- 
ed the  site  of  an  important  city,  in  which  the  lines  of  the 
streets  and  the  boundaries  of  two  or  three  large  enclosures 
were  yet  visible.  Two  of  the  mounds  were  apparently  mere 


64  PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

rubbish-heaps  of  the  ordinary  type ;  the  third  being  entirely 
composed  of  the  burned  and  blackened  ruins  of  a  huge  pile 
of  brick  buildings,  visible,  like  a  lesser  Birs  Nimroud,  for  a 
great  distance  across  the  plain.  Arriving  at  his  destination 
towards  evening,  foot-sore  and  weary,  Mr.  Petrie  beheld  this 
singular  object  standing  high  against  a  lurid  sky,  and  red- 
dened by  a  fiery  sunset.  His  Arabs  hastened  to  tell  him  its 
local  name;  and  he  may  be  envied  the  delightful  surprise 
with  which  he  learned  that  it  was  known  far  and  near  as 
"El  Kasr  el  Bint  el  Yahudi"— the  "Castle  of  the  Jew's 
Daughter." 

Setting  to  work  with  some  forty  or  fifty  laborers,  he  soon 
discovered  that  he  had  to  do  with  the  calcined  ruins  of  a 
structure  which  was  both  a  fort  and  a  palace.  It  consisted 
of  one  enormous  square  tower  containing  sixteen  rooms  on 
each  floor;  while,  built  up  against  its  outer  walls,  were  a 
variety  of  later  structures,  such  as  might  have  been  added 
for  guard-rooms,  offices,  and  the  accommodation  of  a  court. 
There  was  every  evidence  that  the  place  had  been  taken  by 
assault,  plundered,  and  burned,  the  upper  stories  of  the  tower 
having  fallen  in  and  buried  the  basements.  Layer  by  layer, 
Mr.  Petrie  cleared  away  these  masses  of  burned  rubbish — 
each  layer  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  place.  The  royal 
apartments  had  once  been  lined  with  fine  limestone  slabs 
exquisitely  sculptured  and  painted ;  but  these  had  been  lit- 
erally mashed  to  pieces  before  the  place  was  fired,  and  lay 
in  splintered  heaps  among  the  debris  of  charred  beams  and 
blackened  bricks.  That  this  stronghold  was  actually  built, 
as  Herodotus  states,  by  Psammetichus  I.  was  proved  by 
the  discovery  of  that  king's  foundation  deposits  under  the 
four  corners  of  the  building.  These  deposits  consisted  of 
libation  vessels,  corn -rubbers,  specimens  of  ores,  model  bricks, 
the  bones  of  a  sacrificial  ox  and  of  a  small  bird,  and  a  series 
of  little  tablets  in  gold,  silver,  lapis  lazuli,  porcelain,  carnelian, 
and  jasper,  engraved  with  the  names  and  titles  of  the  royal 
founder. 

Under  this  mountain  of  rubbish,  the  basement  chambers, 


THE  BURIED   CITIES   OF   ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


65 


strange  to  say,  were  found  absolutely  uninjured.  The  kitchen 
was  intact — a  big  room  with  recesses  in  the  walls  which  served 
for  dressers,  in  which  fourteen  large  jars  and  two  large  flat 
dishes  were  yet  standing  in  their  places.  Here  also  were 
found  weights  for  weighing  the  meat,  spits,  knives,  plates, 
cups,  and  saucers  in  abundance.  Another  room  contained 
hundreds  of  amphora  lids  and  plaster  jar  -  sealings,  some 
stamped  with  the  royal  ovals  of  Psammetichus ;  some  with 
those  of  Neko,  his  son ;  and  some  with  those  of  Apries.  This 
was  the  room  in  which  the  wine-jars  were  opened ;  in  other 
words,  the  butler's  pantry.  In  an  adjoining  chamber  were 


TELL  DEFENNKH.   ("EL  KASR  EL  BINT  KL  YAHOm.") 


found  a  vast  number  of  empty  wine-jars,  some  perfect,  some 
broken;  while  in  others  of  the  ground -floor  rooms  were 
piled  large  numbers  of  early  Greek  vases  ranging  in  date 
from  550  B.C.  to  600  B.C.,  some  finely  painted  with  scenes  of 
5 


66  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

gigantomachia,  chimeras,  harpies,  sphinxes,  processions  of 
damsels,  dancers,  chariots,  and  the  like  —  all  broken,  it  is 
true,  but  many  in  a  mendable  condition. 

Most  curious  of  all,  however,  was  a  little  room  containing 
a  bench,  recesses,  and  a  sink  formed  of  one  huge  jar  with  the 
bottom  knocked  out.  This  was  the  scullery !  The  bench 
was  to  stand  the  things  on  while  being  washed ;  the  recesses 
were  to  receive  them  when  washed ;  and  the  jar  sink,  which 
opened  into  a  drain  formed  of  a  succession  of  bottomless  jars 
going  down  to  the  clean  sand  below  the  foundation,  was 
found  to  be  filled  with  potsherds  placed  on  edge — these 
potsherds  being  coated  with  organic  matter  and  clogged 
with  fish-bones.  All  this  is  doubtless  very  prosaic ;  but  to 
have  discovered  Pharaoh's  kitchen,  scullery,  and  butler's  pan- 
try is  really  more  curious  and  far  more  novel,  than  would 
have  been  the  discovery  of  his  throne-room. 

A  great  variety  of  objects  from  the  royal  apartments 
were  found  in  the  fallen  rubbish  above  the  level  of  the 
servants'  offices — such  as  bronze  and  silver  rings,  amulets, 
beads,  seals,  small  brass  vessels,  draughtmen,  a  grand  sword- 
handle  with  a  curved  guard,  and  a  quantity  of  burned  and 
rusted  scale-armor.  The  great  camp,  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  palace-fort  was  built,  also  yielded  a  harvest  of  military 
relics.  This  camp  (the  camp  founded  by  Psammetichus  for 
the  Carian  and  Ionian  troops  to  whose  valor  he  owed  his 
crown)  measured  2000  feet  in  length  by  1000  feet  in  breadth ; 
and  though  Mr.  Petrie  excavated  but  a  corner  of  it,  he  found 
hundreds  of  objects  belonging  to  these  ancient  Greek  soldiers 
— arrow-heads  in  bronze  and  iron,  horses'  bits,  fragments  of 
chain-work,  iron  bars,  blacksmith's  tools,  and  the  like.  He 
also  excavated  part  of  the  Greek  town  in  the  plain,  where 
large  quantities  of  beautiful  carnelian,  onyx,  garnet,  and 
other  beads  were  found ;  scraps  of  gold- work,  indicating  a 
large  trade  in  articles  of  personal  adornment ;  and  an  im- 
mense number  of  very  small  weights,  such  as  could  only  be 
used  by  jewellers  and  dealers  in  precious  stones. 

A  massive  gold  handle,  apparently  the  handle  of  a  tray, 


THE   BURIED   CITIES   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  67 

was  also  found  buried  in  a  corner  of  the  camp,  where  doubt- 
less it  had  been  hidden  by  some  plunderer  when  the  place 
was  sacked  and  burned.  This  undoubtedly  formed  part  of 
Hophra's  service  of  gold  plate  (that  sendee  of  gold  plate 
which  he  would,  of  course,  have  placed  at  the  disposal  of  his 
royal  Jewish  guests),  and  it  is,  with  one  exception,  the  only 
piece  of  gold  plate  ever  found  in  Egypt. 

To  return,  however,  to  Jeremiah  and  his  famous  prophe- 
cy—to that  day  when  he  took  "great  stones  in  his  hand, 
and  placed  them  with  mortar  in  the  brick-work  which  was 
at  the  entry  of  Pharaoh's  House  in  Tahpanhes."  In  illustra- 
tion of  this  passage,  I  may  here  quote  a  few  lines  from  Mr. 
Petrie's  private  report  addressed  to  the  Honorary  Secre- 
tary and  Executive  Committee  of  the  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund,  during  the  month  of  April,  1886  : 

"This  ' brickwork, or  pavement1  at  the  entry  of  Pharaolrs 
House  has  always  been  a  puzzle  to  translators ;  but  as  soon 
as  we  began  to  uncover  the  plan  of  the  palace,  the  exactness 
of  the  description  was  manifest ;  for  here,  outside  the  build- 
ings adjoining  the  central  tower,  I  found  by  repeated  trench- 
ings  an  area  of  continuous  brickwork  resting  on  sand,  and 
measuring  about  100  feet  by  60  feet,  facing  the  entrance  to 
the  buildings  at  the  east  corner. 

"  The  roadway  ran  up  a  recess  between  the  buildings,  and 
this  platform,  which  has  no  traces  of  superstructures,  was 
evidently  an  open-air  place  for  loading  and  unloading  goods, 
or  sitting  out  in  the  air,  or  transacting  business,  or  convers- 
ing— just  such  a  place,  in  fact,  as  is  made  by  the  Egyptians 
to  this  day  in  front  of  their  houses,  where  they  drink  coffee, 
and  smoke  in  the  cool  of  the  afternoon,  and  receive  their 
visitors. 

"  Such  seems  to  have  been  the  object  of  this  large  plat- 
form, which  was  evidently  a  place  to  meet  persons  who 
would  not  be  admitted  into  the  palace  or  fort ;  to  assemble 
guards ;  to  hold  large  levees ;  to  receive  tribute  and  stores ; 
to  unlade  goods;  and  to  transact  the  multifarious  business 
which,  in  so  hot  a  climate,  is  done  in  the  open  air.  This 


68  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

platform  is  therefore,  unmistakably,  the  brickwork,  or  pave- 
ment, which  is  at  the  '  entry  of  Pharaoh's  House  in  Tahpan- 
hes.'  The  rains  have  washed  away  this  area  and  denuded 
the  surface,  so  that,  although  it  is  two  or  three  feet  thick 
near  the  palace,  it  is  reduced  in  greater  part  to  a  few  inches, 
and  is  altogether  gone  at  the  north-west  corner." 

Now,  the  Arabic  name  for  a  platform  of  this  kind  is 
"Balat;"  and  that  we  have  in  this  "Balat"  the  brickwork 
referred  to  in  the  Bible  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  by  the 
most  determined  sceptic.  And  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the 
alternative  reading  above  mentioned, "  the  brickwork  which 
is  at  the  entry  of  Pharaoh's  house"  is  rendered  as  "the 
pavement  or  square." 

Here,  therefore,  the  ceremony  described  by  Jeremiah  must 
have  been  performed,  and  it  was  upon  this  spot  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar was  to  spread  his  royal  pavilion.  It  will  be 
asked,  perhaps,  if  Mr.  Petne  actually  found  the  stones  which 
Jeremiah  laid  with  mortar  in  the  thickness  of  that  pave- 
ment. He  looked  for  them,  of  course,  turning  up  the  brick- 
work in  every  part ;  and  he  did  find  some  large  stones  lying 
loosely  on  the  surface.  But  these  had  probably  rolled 
down  from  the  wreck  of  the  palace.  At  all  events,  it  was 
impossible  to  identify  them. 

Meanwhile,  we  turn  in  vain  to  the  pages  of  sacred  and 
secular  history  for  some  record  of  the  fate  of  those  hapless 
princesses — the  last,  the  very  last — of  the  ancient  and  noble 
royal  line  of  Judah,  who  wrere  recognized  as  royal.  What 
fate  befell  them  and  their  followers  ?  Did  the  Assyrian  pur- 
sue them  with  fire  and  sword?  And  was  the  conqueror's 
pavilion  actually  spread  upon  the  spot  marked  out  by  the 
prophet  ?  The  Bible  tells  us  no  more ;  but  certain  Egyptian 
inscriptions  state  that  Nebuchadnezzar  again  invaded  Egypt, 
and  was  defeated  by  Apries— Pharaoh  Hophra ;  while  on 
the  other  hand,  certain  Babylonian  inscriptions  give  the  vic- 
tory to  Nebuchadnezzar.  AVhich  are  we  to  believe?  For 
my  own  part,  I  unhesitatingly  accept  the  impartial  evidence 
of  that  burned  and  blackened  pile,  "  The  Castle  of  the  Jew's 


THE   BURIED    CITIES   OF   ANCIENT   EGYPT.  69 

Daughter ;"  and  I  do  not  doubt  that  the  invincible  Assyri- 
an wrought  his  uttermost  vengeance  upon  the  "  remnant  of 
Judah." 

Nor  must  we  forget  the  additional  testimony  of  three 
clay  cylinders  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  inscribed  in  cuneiform 
characters,  and  now  in  the  National  Egyptian  Museum. 
Some  seven  or  eight  years  ago  these  cylinders  were  sold  to 
Professor  Maspero  by  an  Arab  who  found  them,  as  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe,  upon  this  very  spot ;  and  such  cylin- 
ders were  precisely  the  memorials  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
would  have  left  buried  beneath  the  spot  where  he  spread 
his  pavilion,  and  planted  his  royal  standard,  in  the  hour  of 
victory. 


POTTERY    IN    THE    CELLAR    OF    HOUSE    OF    BAKAKUIU. 


PLOUGHING   SCENE. 


III. 

PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

THE  oldest  sculptures  and  the  oldest  paintings  which  have 
come  down  to  our  time  are  the  work  of  ancient  Egyptian  ar- 
tists who  lived  some  four  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  This  would  look  as  though  sculpture  and  painting  were 
twins — twins  born  of  the  fruitful  Nile,  and  therefore  of  par- 
allel antiquity.  But  the  art  of  painting  implies  first  the  art 
of  drawing ;  and  the  art  of  drawing  is  infinitely  more  ancient 
than  that  of  sculpture.  It  is  more  ancient  than  the  imme- 
morial civilization  of  Egypt.  It  is  almost  as  old  as  man  him- 
self. 

The  child  by  the  sea-shore  tracing  rude  figures  of  men  and 
animals  upon  the  wet  sands,  and  the  cave-dweller  in  the  ages 
before  history  outlining  the  forms  of  the  mammoth  and  the 
mastodon  on  a  fragment  of  polished  bone,  are  obeying  the 
same  imitative  bent,  and  that  imitative  bent  is  due  to  one  of 
the  primary  instincts  of  our  race.  An  incised  outline  upon 
bone  is  not  sculpture.  It  is  drawing — drawing  with  a  point. 
It  precedes  the  attempt  to  model  in  clay,  or  to  carve  images 
in  wood  or  stone.  In  a  word,  it  is  the  earliest  form  of  fine 
art  in  the  world. 

From  the  prehistoric  cave-dweller  we  pass  at  one  step  to 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  71 

the  ancient  Egyptian  draughtsman.  In  the  history  of  art,  all 
is  blank  between  them.  We  cannot  measure  the  abvss  of 
time  which  separates  the  one  from  the  other.  We  only  know 
that  in  the  meanwhile  there  had  been  changes  of  manv  kinds 
—upheavals  and  subsidences  of  land  and  water ;  disappear- 
ances of  certain  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life ;  and  the 
like.  We  do  not  know — we  cannot  even  guess — how  long  it 
had  taken  the  ancient  Egyptian  to  Avork  his  way  up  from 
primitive  barbarism  to  that  stage  of  advanced  culture  at  which 
he  had  arrived  when  we  first  make  his  acquaintance  on  his 
native  soil.  This  is  about  the  time  of  the  building  of  the 
Great  Pyramid,  or  nearly  six  thousand  years  ago,  counting  to 
this  year  of  grace,  1890.  Already  he  was  a  consummate 
builder,  geometrician,  and  mathematician.  Already  he  was 
in  possession  of  a  religious  literature  of  great  antiquity.  He 
was  master  of  a  highly  complicated  system  of  writing ;  he 
had  carried  the  art  of  sculpture,  in  the  most  obdurate  mate- 
rials, to  as  high  a  degree  of  perfection  as  was  possible  with  the 
tools  at  his  command ;  and  he  drew  the  human  figure  better 
— far  better — than  he  did  in  those  later  days  when  Herodo- 
tus and  Plato  and  Strabo  visited  the  Valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  earliest  Egyptian  paintings  to  which  it  is  possible  to 
assign  a  date,  are  executed  in  tempera  upon  the  walls  of  cer- 
tain tombs  made  for  the  noble  personages  who  were  contempo- 
rary with  King  Khufu  (better  known  as  Cheops),  the  builder 
of  the  Great  Pyramid.  In  these  paintings  we  see  herdsmen 
driving  herds  of  goats,  oxen,  and  asses  ;  vintagers  working  the 
wine-press ;  scenes  of  ploughing,  feasting,  dancing,  boating, 
and  so  forth.  There  is  no  attempt  at  scenery  or  background. 
The  heads  are  given  in  profile,  but  the  eyes  are  given  as  if 
seen  frontwise. 

The  head  being  in  profile,  one  would  expect  to  see  the 
body  in  profile ;  but  this  was  not  in  accordance  with  ancient 
Egyptian  notions.  The  artist  desired  to  make  as  much  of 
his  sitter  as  possible— to  give  him  full  credit  for  the  breadth 
of  his  chest  and  the  width  of  his  shoulders,  and  to  show  that 
he  had  the  customary  allowance  of  arms  and  legs;  so  he 


72  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

represented  the  body  in  front  view.  But  he  thus  landed  him- 
self in  a  grave  difficulty.  To  draw  a  pair  of  legs  and  feet  in 
front  view  is  by  no  means  easy.  It  requires  a  knowledge  of 
foreshortening,  and  the  Egyptian  artist  was  as  ignorant  of 
foreshortening  as  of  perspective.  He,  however,  met  this  dif- 
ficulty by  boldly  returning  to  the  point  from  which  he  first 
started,  and  drawing  the  legs  and  feet  in  profile,  like  the 
face.  Nor  was  this  all.  Having  no  idea  of  perspective,  he 
placed  every  part  of  his  subject  on  the  same  plane ;  that  is 
to  say,  a  man  walking  or  standing  has  the  one  foot  planted 
so  exactly  in  front  of  the  other  that  a  line  drawn  from  the 
middle  toe  of  the  front  foot  would  precisely  intersect  the 
soles  of  both.  I  have  sometimes  wondered  whether  it  ever 
occurred  to  an  ancient  Egyptian  artist  to  try  to  place  him- 
self in  the  attitude  in  which  he  elected  to  represent  his  fel- 
low-creatures— namely,  with  his  body  at  a  right  angle  to  his 
legs  and  his  profile.  He  would  have  found  it  extremely  un- 
comfortable, not  to  say  impossible.  Yet  in  this  preposterous 
fashion  he  depicted  princes  and  peasants,  priests  and  kings, 
and  even  armies  on  the  march.  Strange  to  say,  the  effect  is 
neither  so  ugly  nor  so  ridiculous  as  it  sounds.  The  outline 
is  drawn  with  such  freedom,  and  the  forms,  taken  separate- 
ly, are  so  graceful  that,  despite  our  better  judgment,  we 
accept  the  conventional  deformity,  and  even  forget  that  it  is 
deformity. 

When  the  ancient  Egyptian  artist  had  drawn  the  face  and 
figure  of  his  sitter,  he  proceeded  to  fill  up  the  outline  with 
color.  It  it  were  the  portrait  of  a  man,  he  covered  the  face, 
body,  arms,  and  legs  with  a  flat  wash  of  dark,  reddish-brown ; 
if  it  were  the  portrait  of  a  woman,  he  substituted  a  yellow- 
ish-buff. Not  that  the  men  were  in  reality  red-brown  or  the 
women  yellow,  but  because  these  were  the  conventional  tints 
employed  to  distinguish  the  complexions  of  the  two  sexes. 
He  next  indicated  the  eyebrow  by  a  black  line  of  uniform 
thickness ;  and  for  the  eye,  he  painted  a  black  disk  on  a  white 
ground.  The  garments  and  the  border-patterns  of  the  gar- 
ments, the  necklaces,  the  bracelets,  the  rich  belts,  the  elab- 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  73 

orate  head-dresses,  were  all  treated  with  exquisite  minuteness, 
and  in  the  same  flat  tints. 

Such  being  his  system  of  color,  it  was  of  course  impossible 
for  our  Egyptian  to  represent  light  and  shadow,  or  the  tex- 
ture of  stuffs,  or  the  flow  of  drapery.  His  art,  in  fact,  can- 
not be  described  as  painting,  in  our  sense  of  the  term.  He 
did  not  paint ;  he  illuminated.  (")  Inasmuch,  therefore,  as  he 
excelled  in  the  methods  of  illumination,  he  was  a  singularly 
skilful  craftsman ;  but  inasmuch  as  he  has  never  been  surpass- 
ed for  purity  and  precision  and  sweep  of  outline,  or  for  the 
fidelity  with  which  here  produced  the  racial  characteristics 
of  foreign  nations,  or  for  the  truth  and  spirit  with  which  he 
depicted  all  varieties  of  animal  life,  he  was  undoubtedly  and 
unquestionably  an  artist.  Drawing  only  in  profile,  and  paint- 
ing only  in  flat  washes,  he  could  not,  and  did  not,  attempt  to 
show  the  changing  expression  of  the  human  face  in  joy  or 
grief  or  anger.  The  widow  wailing  over  the  mummy  of  her 
husband,  the  Pharaoh  slaying  his  thousands  on  the  field  of 
battle,  looks  out  into  space  with  the  smiling  serenity  of  a 
cherub  on  a  tombstone.  But  let  Rameses  return  to  Thebes 
after  a  victorious  campaign  in  Ethiopia  or  Asia  Minor,  bring- 
ing a  string  of  foreign  captives  bound  to  his  chariot-wheels, 
and  see  then  what  our  Egyptian  artist  can  do !  "With  noth- 
ing but  his  reed-pen  and  his  whole-colored  w ashes,  he  pro- 
duces a  series  of  portraits  of  Syrians,  Libyans,  negroes,  and 
Asiatic  Greeks  which  no  English  or  French  or  American  ar- 
tist could  surpass  for  living  and  speaking  individuality,  and 
which  probably  none  of  them  could  do  half  so  well  if  com- 
pelled to  employ  the  same  methods. 

There  is,  however,  one  point  upon  which  it  is  necessary 
to  insist  in  this  connection.  Among  even  those  who  care 
much  and  know  much  about  art,  there  prevails  an  impression 
that  the  art  of  the  Egyptians  was  phenomenally  rigid  and 
incorrect,  and  that  Egyptian  painters  committed  more  glar- 
ing errors  in  their  treatment  of  the  "  human  form  divine  " 
than  the  early  artists  of  other  nations.  This  is  a  grave 
misconception.  The  beginnings  of  pictorial  art  in  all  nations, 


74  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

at  all  periods,  are  curiously  alike.  The  archaic  tyro  tries  his 
u  'prentice  hand  "  on  the  same  subjects ;  he  encounters  the 
same  difficulties ;  he  meets  those  difficulties  in  the  same  way  ; 
he  commits  the  same  blunders.  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Etrus- 
can, Greek,  repeat  one  another.  They  all  draw  the  face  in 
profile,  and  the  eye  as  if  seen  from  the  front.  They  all  rep- 
resent the  feet  planted  on  precisely  the  same  line.  They  all 
color  in  flat  tints,  and  are  alike  ignorant  of  light  and  shade, 
of  foreshortening  and  perspective. 

Greek  painting — the  whole  body  of  Greek  painting,  from 
its  earliest  to  its  latest  phase,  with  the  one  exception  of  the 
art  of  painted  vases — is  irrecoverably  lost.  Of  the  master- 
pieces of  Greek  sculpture,  some  few  priceless  relics  have  sur- 
vived the  general  wreck  ;  but  of  the  famous  creations  of  the 
great  Greek  painters  there  remains  but  an  echo  in  the  pages 
of  Pausanias  and  Pliny.  The  w^alls  enriched  with  their  im- 
mortal frescos,  the  panels  on  which  they  painted  their  in- 
comparable easel  pictures,  have  long  since  become  dust.  But, 
like  the  glow  that  streams  up  from  the  west  after  the  sun  has 
gone  down,  the  splendor  of  their  fame  yet  lights  the  horizon 
and  is  reflected  on  the  hills  of  Athens. 

Strange  to  say,  despite  the  ruin  which  has  overtaken  their 
works,  we  know  almost  as  much  about  those  dead  and  gone 
painters  of  between  two  and  three  thousand  years  ago  as  we 
know  about  the  artists  of  our  own  day.  We  have  elaborate 
descriptions  of  their  pictures,  notes  on  their  methods,  criti- 
cisms on  their  styles,  and  abundance  of  anecdotes  of  their 
sayings  and  doings.  We  know  that  Polygnotus,  who  excelled 
in  battle-pieces,  was  called  the  "most  ethical  of  painters;" 
that  Xeuxis  carried  realism  to  the  point  of  actual  illusion  ; 
that  Protogenes  (an  earlier  Albert  Diirer)  finished  his  pict- 
ures with  microscopic  minuteness ;  and  that  Apelles  excelled 
all  the  rest  in  ideal  beauty  and  grace. 

The  prices  which  these  artists  received  for  their  pictures 
were  by  no  means  contemptible.  Nikias,  it  is  said,  refused  to 
sell  one  of  his  works  to  Ptolemy  Lagus  for  sixty  talents,  a  sum 
equivalent  to  sixty  thousand  dollars,  or  twelve,  thousand 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


To 


pounds  sterling.  Aristides,  when  commissioned  to  paint  a 
battle-piece  containing  one  hundred  figures,  bargained  for 
two  hundred  dollars,  or  forty  pounds  sterling,  per  figure ;  and 
Alexander,  for  his  own  portrait  in  the  character  of  Zeus  hurl- 
ing a  thunder-bolt,  gave  Apelles  no  less  than  twenty  talents  of 
gold — that  is  to  say,  fifty  thousand  pounds  sterling,  or  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  As  for  the  painters  who 
commanded  these  extraordinary  prices,  they  rivalled  each 
other  in  ostentation  and  vanity.  They  robed  themselves  in 
the  purple  of  royalty  ;  they  wore  golden  wreaths  upon  their 
heads  and  golden  clasps  upon  their  sandals ;  and  they  squan- 
dered their  wealth  with  both  hands.(18) 

Yet  the  art  which  rose  to  this  height  of  renown  started 
from  beginnings  more  humble  than  anything  which  has  come 
down  to  us  in  the  shape  of  ancient  Egyptian  painting.  The 
paintings  of  the  Greeks,  as  I  have  said,  are  lost,  and  only 
their  vase-paintings  remain.  But  as  the  vase-paintings  of 
the  finest  period  reflect  the  art  of  the  finest  period,  so  the 
vase-paintings  of  the  archaic  period  reflect  the  art  of  the 
archaic  period ;  and  they  show  with  what  a  childish  hand  the 
first  attempts  of  the  Greek  draughtsman  were  traced.  ]S"oth- 
ing  in  the  way  of  drawing  which  has  yet  been  discovered  in 
Egypt  is  so  ludicrously  feeble  as  the  drawing  upon  the  so- 
called  Proto- Homeric  vases  found  at  Athens.  These  vases 
are  supposed  to  date  from  the  tenth  century  before  our  era, 
and  are  therefore  contemporaneous  with  the  Twentieth  Egyp- 
tian Dynasty — the  dynasty  of  Kameses  III.  and  his  successors. 

But  the  Twentieth  Egyptian  Dynasty,  if  it  registers  the 
beginnings  of  art  in  the  very  core  of  Hellas,  marks  its  old 
age  and  decadence  in  Egypt.  Pliny  laughed  the  Egyptians 
to  scorn,  when  they  claimed  their  priority  as  painters. 

"  Concerning  the  first  origin  of  the  painter's  art,"  he  says, 
"  I  am  not  ignorant  that  the  Egyptians  do  vaunt  thereof, 
avouching  that  it  was  devised  by  them,  and  practised  sixe 
hundred  years  before  there  was  any  talke  or  knowledge 
thereof  in  Greece,  a  vaine  brag  and  ostentation  of  theirs,  as 
all  the  world  may  see."(")  But  the  incredulity  of  Pliny  was 


76  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

the  incredulity  of  ignorance.  Himself  living  in  an  age  when 
the  Egyptians  spoke  only  Coptic  or  Greek,  and  when  the 
secret  of  the  old  Egyptian  writing  was  lost,  neither  he  nor 
his  contemporaries,  nor  the  Coptic  Egyptians  themselves, 
had  any  standard  left  by  which  to  measure  the  history  of 
the  great  African  province.  It  Avas  not  a  priority  of  six 
hundred  years  that  the  Egyptians  should  have  claimed  in 
this  controversy,  but  a  priority  of  more  than  three  thousand. 
The  painted  tombs  of  the  Pyramid  plateau  were  already 
close  upon  four  thousand  years  old  in  the  time  of  Pliny. 

But  there  is  yet  another  fact  bearing  on  this  question — a 
fact  which  none  of  us  suspected  till  the  mysterious  records 
sculptured  on  stone  and  written  on  papyrus  were  deciphered 
— namely,  that  the  so-called  Pelasgic  Greeks,  the  very  early 
Greeks  of  the  Archipelago  and  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  had 
been  known  to  the  Egyptians,  and  fought  by  them,  and  van- 
quished by  them,  and  brought  as  captives  to  Thebes,  as 
early  as  the  time  of  King  Sankhara  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty. 
Of  this  king  it  is  recorded  in  a  contemporary  rock-cut  in- 
scription in  the  Valley  of  Hamamat,  that  "  he  broke  down 
the  power  of  the  Hanebu."  As  I  explain  in  Chapter  V. 
of  this  volume,  "  Hanebu  • '  is  the  name  by  which  the  Greeks 
were  first  known  to  the  Egyptians.  Later  on,  in  inscriptions 
of  the  time  of  Thothmes  III.  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  we 
meet  with  them  as  the  Danasans ;  and  later  still,  under  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  three  following  dynasties,  they  appear  with 
their  distinctive  names  as  Achseans,  Lycians,  Dardanians, 
Mycians,  Teucrians,  lonians,  and  Carians. 

It  has,  however,  been  supposed  up  to  the  present  time 
that  these  early  Greeks  knew  Egypt  only  as  miserable  cap- 
tives toiling  in  the  mines  and  quarries,  and  that  the  land  of 
the  Pharaohs  was  jealously  closed  against  them  until  they 
settled  at  Daphnse  as  a  military  colony  under  Psammetichus 
L,  and  at  Naukratis  as  a  trading  colony  under  Amasis  II. 
But  so  recently  as  the  spring-time  of  1889  a  strange  new 
light  dawned  upon  the  horizon  eastward  of  Hellas.  In  two 
little  ruined  towns  situate  within  a  few  miles  of  each  other 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  77 

on  the  borders  of  the  Fayum,  Mr.  Petrie  discovered  traces 
of  two  separate  colonies  of  foreigners,  the  one  colony  dating 
from  the  reign  of  Usertesen  II.  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
about  three  thousand  years  before  our  era ;  and  the  other 
dating  from  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III.  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty,  about  fifteen  hundred  years  later.  The  earlier 
mound  is  locally  known  as  Tell  Kahun,  and  the  more  recent 
as  Tell  Gurob.  In  both  have  been  found  innumerable  frag- 
ments of  pottery  of  Cypriote  and  archaic  Greek  styles ;  and 
hundreds  of  these  potsherds  are  inscribed  with  characters, 
some  of  which  may  be  Phoenician,  or  that  earliest  derivative 
of  Phoenician  known  as  Cadmaaan  Greek ;  while  others  be- 
long to  the  Cypriote,  Graeco-Asiatic,  and  Italic  alphabets. 
Nor  is  this  all.  The  cemetery  belonging  to  one  of  these 
towns  has  given  up  its  dead,  who  prove  to  have  been  a  fair 
and  golden-haired  race,  like  the  "  Golden-tressed  Achaaans  " 
of  Homer. 

The  ancient  settlers  who  lived  and  died  at  Tell  Gurob 
were  mummified  like  the  native  Egyptians,  having  apparently 
adopted  the  religion  of  the  country  ;  and  on  the  mummy-case 
of  one,  we  read  that  its  occupant's  name  was  An-Tursha,  and 
that  he  was  "  Governor  of  the  Palace."  Now,  in  its  etymolo- 
gy, An-Tursha  is  a  very  remarkable  name — for  the  man  who 
bore  it  must  have  belonged  to  a  foreign  people  called  the 
Tursha,  who  allied  themselves  with  the  Libyans  and  Sardin- 
ians in  an  attack  upon  Egypt  (luring  the  reign  of  Seti  I., 
and  were  signally  defeated.  About  a  century  later,  in  the  reign 
of  Rameses  III.  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty,  they  again  vent- 
ured across  the  sea  in  their  "hollow  ships,"  allied  this  time 
with  the  Danaaans,  Sicilians,  Lycians,  and  others.  Descend- 
ing upon  the  Egyptian  coast  near  Pelusium,  they  were  en- 
countered by  the  whole  naval  and  military  force  of  Kame- 
ses  III.,  and  wellnigh  annihilated.  Who,  then,  were  these 
Tursha  that  come  before  us  first  in  company  with  the  Sar- 
dinians, and  next  with  the  Sardinians  and  Sicilians— both 
nations  from  the  northern  waters  of  the  Mediterranean? 
The  Tursha  are  none  other  than  the  primitive  rulers  of 


78  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Latium,  the  mysterious  Etruscans,  whose  identification  has 
been  con  vincingly  established  by  Francois  Lenormant.(30)  And 
it  was  on  the  potsherds  of  Tell  Gurob,  a  settlement  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  fair-haired  foreigners  precisely  during 
the  reign  of  Seti  I.  and  his  immediate  successors  (the  settle- 
ment in  which  the  man  An-Tursha  lived  and  died)  that 
those  especial  signs  were  found  which  are  unquestionably 
identical  with  certain  letters  of  the  Etruscan  alphabet.  With- 
out venturing  to  draw  any  conclusion  from  these  facts,  I 
desire  to  call  attention  very  particularly  to  the  sequel  in 
which  they  follow  each  other. 

About  3000  B.C.  Sankhara  subdues  the  tribes  of  the  Greek 
Archipelago.  Some  three  generations  later,  in  the  reign  of 
Usertesen  II.,  a  colony  of  foreign  workmen,  who  were  prob- 
ably employed  in  transporting  the  stone  of  which  that 
Pharaoh's  pyramid  was  built,  settle  close  beside  it,  on  the 
edge  of  the  desert.  They  decorate  their  domestic  pottery 
with  patterns  unknown  to  Egyptian  potters,  and  they  in- 
scribe them  with  characters  closely  resembling  the  archaic 
alphabets  of  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus.  Is  it  not  allowable  to 
ask  whether  these  foreigners  might  not  be  descendants  of 
the  captives  brought  home  by  Sankhara? 

Fifteen  hundred  years  later,  Thothmes  III.  celebrates  his 
victories  over  the  Dardani — Dardani  being  here  used,  as  by 
Homer,  to  designate  the  Asiatic  Greeks  generally.  And  it 
is  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III.  that  another  alien  colony  is 
established,  perhaps  not  altogether  by  chance,  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  deserted  site  occupied  fifteen  centuries  before 
by  the  earlier  settlers.  The  new  town,  Tell  Gurob,  con- 
tinues to  be  inhabited  for  nearly  one  hundred  years,  and  is 
then  deserted,  like  its  predecessor.  In  the  course  of  that 
century  Egypt  is  again  and  again  attacked,  not  only  by  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  ^Egean,  but  by  the  coast-folk 
and  islanders  of  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  It  is  significant  that 
the  signs  inscribed  on  the  potsherds  of  the  new  colony  com- 
prise letters  belonging  to  the  archaic  alphabets  of  those  very 
tribes  which  hurled  themselves  in  vain  against  the  trained 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT   EGYPT.  79 

battalions  of  Seti  I.  and  Barneses  II. ;  namely,  the  Leku,  or 
Lycians ;  the  Aiuna,  or  lonians ;  the  Akaiusha,  or  Achaeans ; 
and  the  Tursha  or  Etruscans.(ai)  It  is  to  this  later  colony 
that  the  man  An -Tursha  belonged.  It  is  on  the  pottery  of 
this  colony  that  we  find  the  Etruscan  letters ;  and  it  is  in 
the  cemetery  belonging  to  this  colony  that  the  yellow-haired 
mummies  have  been  found. 

JSTow,  these  facts,  take  them  from  what  point  of  view  we 
may,  are  most  extraordinary.  Mr.  Petrie  has  brought  to 
light  the  earliest  Greek  alphabetical  signs  yet  discovered ; 
for  the  most  ancient  specimens  of  Greek  writing  previously 
known  are  the  rock -cut  and  lava -cut  inscriptions  found 
in  the  very  ancient  cemeteries  of  Santorin  and  Thera,  and 
the  famous  Greek  inscription  cut  upon  the  leg  of  one  of  the 
colossi  at  Abu-Simbel.  The  Abu-Simbel  inscription  is 
contemporaneous  with  the  Forty-seventh  Olympiad,  and  Le- 
normant  attributes  the  oldest  of  the  Theran  inscriptions  to 
the  ninth  century  before  Christ.  But  the  potsherds  found 
by  Mr.  Petrie  in  the  Fayum  carry  back  the  history  of  the 
alphabet  to  a  period  earlier  than  the  date  of  the  Exodus, 
and  six  centuries  earlier  than  any  Greek  inscriptions  known. 

But  if  they  throw  a  new  and  surprising  light  upon  the 
history  of  writing  and  of  language,  they  throw  no  less  valu- 
able a  light  upon  the  history  of  art.  By  revealing  the 
astonishing  fact  that  Egypt  contained  settlements  of  early 
Greek  and  Italian  tribes  at  a  date  long  anterior  to  the  earli- 
est date  at  which  those  people  had  any  history  or  monu- 
ments of  their  own,  they  show  in  what  school  of  art  those 
nations  studied.  And  thus  the  marked  Egyptian  character 
of  the  archaic  painting  and  sculpture  of  Greece  and  Etruria 
is  at  once  explained. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  for  one  moment  supposed  that  it 
was  the  settlers  in  those  two  little  towns  in  the  Fayum  who 
handed  on  the  arts  of  Egypt  to  their  barbarian  brethren 
over  the  sea.  The  results  of  the  excavation  of  these  sites 
are  samples— mere  samples— of  what  the  minor  mounds  of 
Egypt  hold  in  store  for  the  explorer.  There  are  probably 


80  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

hundreds  of  such  sites  in  Egypt — sites  so  insignificant  in  ap- 
pearance that  no  one  supposes  them  to  be  worth  the  trouble 
of  excavation.  The  Pharaohs  drafted  immense  numbers  of 
prisoners  into  Egypt.  They  needed  men  for  their  gigantic 
public  works,  which  could  only  be  carried  on  by  means  of  a 
reckless  sacrifice  of  human  life.  It  was  for  this  purpose, 
quite  as  much  as  for  mere  booty,  that  they  made  their  in- 
cessant raids  upon  Ethiopia  and  Syria.  When,  therefore, 
the  barbarian  hordes  of  southern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor 
attacked  Egypt  by  land  or  sea,  they  rushed,  not  merely 
upon  defeat  and  death,  but  upon  slavery.  There  must  have 
been  tens  of  thousands,  perhaps  hundreds  of  thousands,  of 
these  foreigners  in  Egypt  during  the  Nineteenth  and  Twen- 
tieth dynasties;  for  again  and  again  during  the  reigns  of 
Rameses  II.  and  Rameses  III.,  they  came  upon  the  same  des- 
perate errand,  and  with  the  same  result.  Vast  numbers 
were  sent  to  the  mines  and  the  quarries,  and,  like  the  Chil- 
dren of  Israel,  to  the  brick-fields.  But  to  such  as  were 
skilled  in  handicrafts,  a  less  intolerable  lot  would  be  as- 
signed. These  would  be  employed  as  artisans  rather  than 
as  beasts  of  burden.  The  Greek  characters  traced  on  the 
backs  of  certain  encaustic  tiles  found  in  the  ruins  of  a  build- 
ing erected  by  Rameses  III.  at  Tell  el-Yahudieh  may  well 
be  the  work  of  some  of  these  prisoners  of  war.  The  for- 
eigners would  naturally  herd  together  close  against  the  py- 
ramid or  temple  or  canal  where  the  taskmasters  kept  them 
at  work ;  and  it  is  in  the  little  nameless,  unnoticed  mounds 
scattered  up  and  down  the  Nile  Valley  that  relics  of  their 
presence  will  be  found. 

This  discovery  of  Mr.  Petrie's  throws  an  entirely  new 
light  upon  the  synchronous  history  of  Egypt,  Cyprus,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Etruria.  It  carries  back  the  literary  history  of 
these  nations  to  a  date  hitherto  undreamed  of  by  the  classic 
historians  or  by  ourselves,  and  it  promises  to  clear  up  a  host 
of  very  obscure  problems  concerning  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  Greek  and  Etruscan  art.(22) 

And  now  it  will  be  interesting  to  examine  in  detail  the 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


81 


principles  upon  which  the  human  figure  was  drawn  by  the 
artists  of  ancient  Egypt ;  to  note  the  skill  with  which  they 
seized  upon  and  delineated  the  ethnic  characteristics  of  for- 
eign nations;  and  to  trace  the  influence  of  Egypt  upon  the 
schools  of  Assyria,  Etruria,  and  Greece.  The  accompany  in  o- 
illustration  represents  one  of  the  great 
gods  of  Heliopolis — the  Biblical  "  On." 
His  name  is  rendered  as  Turn,  Tumu, 
or  Atmu.  He  typified  the  setting  sun. 
The  figure  is  drawn  in  pure  line,  and 
presents  all  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  the  Egyptian  school.  The  head  and 
face  are  shown  in  profile,  and  the  shoul- 
ders are  set  squarely  frontwise.  But 
from  below  the  waist,  the  point  of  view 
changes  back  to  profile,  the  legs  and 
feet  being  shown  sidewise,  like  the  face. 
The  feet  are  placed  in  line,  the  heel  of 
the  one  foot  being  exactly  in  front  of 
the  toes  of  the  other.  It  is  an  impos- 
sible position,  yet  the  figure  is  so  boldly 
and  so  simply  drawn  that  we  do  not 
realize  how  impossible  it  is.  The  eye 
is  shown  as  if  seen  in  the  full  face. 
The  hieroglyphic  inscription  contains 
the  name  and  titles  of  the  god :  Turn, 
or  Tumu,  Lord  of  the  Two  Lands,  i.  e,, 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  (M)  Great 
God  of  On,  Ruler  of  the  Gods.  In  this 
figure  we  have  an  admirable  example 
of  ancient  Egyptian  figure -drawing  in 
pure  line.  A  portrait  of  a  god  is,  how- 
ever, necessarily  an  ideal  portrait ;  if,  therefore,  we  would 
form  a  just  notion  of  the  fidelity  with  which  the  artists  of 
Pharaonic  times  painted  the  portraits  of  living  men  and 
women,  we  cannot  do  better  than  turn  to  the  tomb -paint- 
ings of  the  Theban  Period,  and  above  all  to  the  famous 
6 


TTJM. 

Also  called  Tumu  and 
Atmu.  He  wears  the 
"pschent,"  or  double 
crown,  signifying  his 
domination  over  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt.  The 
hieroglyphic  inscription 
recounts  his  name  and  ti- 
tles :  "  Tumu,  Lord  of  the 
Two  Lands,  Great  God  of 
On,  Divine  Ruler  of  the 
Substance  of  the  Gods." 


82 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


typical  groups  known  as  "  the  four  races "  in  the  great 
rock-cut  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  the  Nineteenth  and 
Twentieth  dynasties.  These  groups  represent  the  conven- 


THE    TYPICAL    SYRIAN    OF    EGYPTIAN    ART. 

From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 

tional  "  four  races  "  of  the  ancient  world,  as  classified  by  the 
Egyptians  ;  namely,  the  Egyptians  themselves  (arrogantly 
ranked  as  "mankind"  par  excellence),  the  Asiatics,  the  Lib- 
yans, and  the  Ethiopians ;  or,  more  comprehensively,  the 
browns,  the  yellows,  the  whites,  and  the  blacks. 

This  spirited  head  of  a  Syrian  chief  was  photographed  by 
Mr.  Petrie  from  a  wall-painting  in  the  tomb  of  Kameses  III. 
It  dates,  therefore,  from  about  1100  B.C.  The  wall  is  dam- 
aged and  the  plaster  has  scaled  off  in  places,  but  the  head  is 
fortunately  uninjured.  The  Asiatic  type  is  admirably  caught. 
This  man  was  probably  a  Canaanite.  He  has  all  the  ethnic 
characteristics  of  the  race.  The  eye,  as  usual,  is  falsely 
drawn,  but  it  is  set  at  the  Semitic  angle,  and  the  face  has  a 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


83 


vivid  look  that  speaks  of  actual  portraiture.  He  wears  a 
head-gear  of  some  spotted  material,  bound  with  the  Syrian 
fillet  yet  in  use.  The  fringed  and  patterned  robe,  the  cap  and 
fillet,  are  all  true  to  the  Syrian  costume  of  three  thousand 
years  ago.(24) 

Yery  different  in  type  is  the  typical  Egyptian  as  we  see 
him  represented  in  the  portraits  of  Ra-hotep,  Khufu-Ankh, 
Semnefer,  and  Ra-em-ka.*  The  flesh-tints  of  Egyptians  are 
rendered  of  a  reddish-brown,  and  the  hair  coal-black.  The 
facial  angle  is  quite  different  from  the  facial  angle  of  the 
Asiatics.  It  is  the  facial  angle  of  the  European  races,  and 
it  has  therefore  a  certain  affinity  with  that  of  the  typical 


THE   TYPICAL    LIBYAN    OF    KGYPTIAN    ART. 

From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Potrie. 


Libyan.  Now,  the  typical  Libyans  of  ancient  Egyptian  art 
were  a  fair-skinned,  red-haired,  and  blue-eyed  race,  whose 
descendants  survive  to  this  day  eastward  of  Algeria.  We 

*  See  illustrations  to  chap.  iv. 


84  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

find  them  to  be  invariably  distinguished  by  the  massive  side- 
lock  shown  in  the  illustration.  A  piece  of  the  wall-plaster 
has  unfortunately  been  knocked  out  of  the  cheek,  but  other- 
wise the  face  is  perfect.  It  is  a  very  interesting  face,  gen- 
tle and  intelligent,  and  drawn,  one  would  say,  from  the  life. 
These  fair  Libyans  were  doubtless  emigrants  from  Europe 
or  Asia,  and  were  most  probably  of  Pelasgic  origin.  The 
side-lock  was  a  fashion  peculiar  to  the  Libyans  and  Mashu- 
asha  outside  Egypt ;  and  it  is  stated  by  Herodotus  that 
the  Maxyans  (who  are  in  all  probability  identical  with  the 
Mashuasha  of  Egyptian  inscriptions),  allowed  their  hair  to 
grow  in  a  long  lock  on  the  right  side  of  the  head,  but  shaved 
it  on  the  left.(")  The  side-lock  was  also  a  special  fashion 
observed  by  Egyptian  princes  in  childhood  and  youth,  and 
it  is  worn  to  this  day  by  little  boys  in  Egypt  and  Nubia. 

The  "  blameless  Ethiopian  "  was  a  very  familiar  figure  in  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  it  is  therefore  no  wonder  that 
Egyptian  artists  excelled  in  depicting  his  homely  charac- 
teristics. The  illustration  on  page  85  is  from  Mr.  Petrie's 
series  of  photographs  of  wall-paintings  in  the  tomb  of  a  The- 
ban  noble  named  Hui,  who  was  governor  of  Ethiopia  under 
one  of  the  Pharaohs  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  The  paint- 
ed tombs  of  Egypt  have  suffered  deplorably  at  the  hands  of 
tourists  and  Arabs,  and  the  tomb  of  Hui  has  not  escaped  in- 
jury. Yet,  when  it  is  possible,  illustrations  direct  from  dam- 
aged originals  are  preferable  to  copies  made  fifty  or  sixty 
years  ago,  when  the  paintings  were  comparatively  perfect. 
The  copy,  though  more  pleasing,  may  err;  but  the  photograph 
is  a  faithful  witness.  In  the  present  subject,  we  see  a  pro- 
cession of  Ethiopian  chiefs,  one  of  whom  is  accompanied 
by  his  wife  and  children.  The  negro  types  are  admirably 
given,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  dark  lady  who 
brings  up  the  rear  is  not  beautiful.  She  wears  a  richly  pat- 
terned garment  of  many  colors,  and  she  carries  her  youngest 
child  in  a  funnel-shaped  bag  over  her  shoulder. 

Last  in  the  procession  (for  which  we  have  not  space  here, 
as  it  covers  a  large  wall-space  in  the  tomb)  comes  the  Ethio- 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


85 


plan  queen  herself,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  spotted  oxen.  Her 
face  is  wofully  damaged,  and  the  head  of  the  groom-boy  who 
stands  before  the  oxen  has  been  cut  out  from  the  wall  by 
some  unscrupulous  traveller;  but  her  Majesty's  charioteer 
and  her  attendant  chiefs  are  in  excellent  preservation. 
The  Queen's  arms  are  loaded  with  bracelets,  and  round  her 
neck  she  wears  a  splendid  necklace,  consisting  of  many  rows 


PROCESSION    OF   NKGROES. 

From  a  wall-painting  in  the  tomb  of  Hui  at  El  Kab,  reproduced  from  a  photograph 
.by  Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 

of  beads  and  pendants.  Her  head-dress  is  a  stupendous  work 
of  art,  consisting  of  a  framework  decorated  with  ostrich 
plumes  mounted  on  a  golden  crown.  Plumed  negroes  carry- 
ing trays  piled  with  gold  rings  and  bags  of  gold  dust,  and 
others  bearing  tribute  of  elephant  tusks,  logs  of  ebony,  and 
other  products  of  the  Soudan,  bring  up  the  rear.* 

Although  the  ancient  Egyptian  artist  was  naturally  most 

*  See  Mr.  Petrie's  scries  of  photographs  of  "Racial  Types." 


86 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  the  traditional  "four 
races,"  he  was  no  less  skilful  when  called  upon  to  deal  with 
the  unaccustomed  European  type.  In  the  heads  of  the  Sar- 
dinian body-guard  of  Rameses  II.,  as  we  see  them  depicted 
in  the  famous  battle-subject  on  the  north  wall  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Abu-Simbel,  we  find  these  fair-skinned,  blue-eyed, 
and  small-featured  islanders  represented  with  a  freshness  and 
vivacity  which  seem  to  point  to  the  delight  of  the  draughts- 
man in  a  new  subject. 


THE    SARDINIAN   OF   EGYPTIAN    ART. 


The  ethnic  characteristics  of  these  ancient  Sardinians  are 
very  unlike  those  of  the  Sardinians  of  to-day.  The  type  is 
almost  that  of  the  modern  Englishman,  a  resemblance  which 
is  heightened  by  the  neatly  trimmed  whiskers  of  the  royal 
body-guard.  Curiously  enough,  however,  the  Sardinian  chief- 
tain represented  on  the  pavilion  pylon  of  Rameses  III.  at 
Medinet-Habu  is  of  a  distinctly  Semitic  type.  This  would 
look  as  though  Sardinia,  in  the  time  of  the  Twentieth  Dy- 
nasty, had  fallen  under  the  rule  of  foreign  conquerors;  or  as 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  87 

if  the  native  Sardinian  troops  were  officered  at  that  time  by 
Semites.  In  the  foregoing  head,  as  in  the  heads  of  all  the 
Sardinian  body-guard  of  Kameses  II.  in  the  great  Abu-Sim- 
bel  tableau,  we  have,  at  all  events,  a  purely  European  type : 
and  this  type,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, dates  from  about  eighty 
years  earlier  than  the  sculptures 
of  Medinet-Habii. 

We  will  now  pass  on  to 
Greece.  As  it  has  already  been 
said,  the  only  specimens  of  the 
graphic  arts  of  Greece  which 
time  has  spared  are  found  on 
painted  vases,  the  earliest  being  GREEK  CHARIOTEER- 

the   so-called   «  pre-Homeric" 
vases  of  Athens,  which  cannot 

be  less  ancient  than  1000  B.C.,  and  may  be  yet  older.  The 
designs  are  absurdly  archaic ;  but  they  at  all  events  show  us 
how  barbarous  were  the  beginnings  of  Greek  art  when  iso- 
lated from  foreign  influences. 

Here  we  have  an  example  of  the  earliest  Greek  draughts- 
manship which  has  come  down  to  our  time.  The  subject  is 
taken  from  a  "  pre-Homeric "  vase  figured  in  AVoltmann's 
History  of  Painting,  vol.  i.  The  subject  is  a  charioteer  driv- 
ing a  pair  of  animals,  which  may  be  horses,  or  giraffes,  or 
both.  The  early  Greek  had,  of  course,  no  notion  of  perspec- 
tive ;  therefore  the  chariot-wheels,  though  intended  to  be  one 
on  each  side  of  the  chariot,  are  placed  in  line.  ^Neither  have 
the  chariot-pole  and  wheels  any  connection  with  the  body  of 
the  chariot.  As  for  the  expressive  countenance  and  classic 
draperies  of  the  noble  Athenian,  it  need  scarcely  be  point- 
ed out  that  they  are  immeasurably  inferior  to  the  poorest 
known  specimens  of  Egyptian  figure-drawing,  being  paral- 
leled only  by  the  dot-and-line  performances  of  our  childhood. 

The  following  funerary  scene  is  also  from  a  vase  of  pre- 
Homeric  type,  of  which  an  illustration  is  given  in  Collig- 
non's  Archeologie  Grecque.  In  the  figure-drawing  of  this 


88 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


fragment  there  is  a  marked  improvement,  which  would  seem 
to  be  traceable  to  the  study  of  Egyptian  models.  These  per- 
sonages have  faces,  or,  at  all  events,  noses  and  chins;  also, 
they  have  legs  which  are  very  substantially  developed.  As 
in  Egyptian  paintings,  their  bodies,  from  the  waist  upward, 
are  shown  frontwise,  and  their  legs  and  faces  in  profile. 
The  feet  also  are  placed  in  line.  The  central  object  is  a 
bier,  upon  which  lies  the  body  of  a  dead  hero,  covered  with 
a  pall.  Two  mourners  strew  it  with  palm  branches ;  the 
rest  clasp  their  hands  above  their  heads  in  token  of  grief. 
The  wromen  sit  on  the  floor  beside  the  bier,  in  attitudes  of 
lamentation.  Of  perspective,  the  artist  had  not  the  faintest 
perception.  The  bier  stands  on  four  stout  legs,  which  are 
placed  in  a  row  like  ninepins.  The  figures  stand  on  a  single 
line.  It  is  a  scene  from  a  world  of  but  two  dimensions,  in 
which  all  things  have  length  and  breadth,  but  no  thickness. 


OBSEQUIES    OF    A    HERO. 


A  fragment  of  archaic  painted  ware  found  by  Mr.  Petrie 
in  the  rums  of  the  palace-fort  of  Psammetichus  I.  at  Daph- 
na3,  in  the  Eastern  Delta,  is  decorated  with  the  following 
figure  of  a  Greek  dancing-girl.  Kow,  Daphne  was  founded 
by  this  Pharaoh  for  the  accommodation  of  his  Carian  and 
Ionian  mercenary  troops  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  before  our  era,  and  the  place  was  abandoned 
ninety  years  later,  in  the  reign  of  Amasis  II.  We  have 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


89 


therefore  a  sufficiently  accurate  date  for  this  design  of  a 
dancing-woman  ;  that  is  to  say,  we  may  take  it  for  granted 
that  the  Greek  colonists  who  settled  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  camp  would  scarcely  have  built  their  town,  and  devel- 
oped their  trades  as  potters 
and  goldsmiths,  until  at  least 
a  decade  had  elapsed.  Conse- 
quently, this  product  of  their 
industry  would  fall  within  the 
strict  limit  of  eighty  years. 
Our  Greeks  had  by  this  time 
much  improved  in  their  treat- 
ment of  the  human  figure.  But 
for  the  old  false  drawing  of 
the  frontwise  eye  in  the  pro- 
file face,  the  features  are  nat- 
urally given.  And  it  is  a  thor- 
oughly Greek  face,  which  is 
very  interesting.  The  fillet, 
the  ear-ring,  and  the  long  side- 
curl  are  all  characteristic  of 
archaic  Greek  costume.  The 

figure  has,  however,  all  the  Egyptian  conventionalities  gross- 
ly exaggerated,  the  body  being  shown  frontwise  to  the  waist, 
while  the  legs  and  feet  are  placed  sidewise,  the  breadth  of 
the  shoulders  and  the  length  of  the  arms  being  ludicrously 
out  of  proportion. 

On  another  fragment  of  the  same  date  and  from  the 
same  place,  we  have  next  a  stock  subject  of  the  Greek  vase- 
painters  ;  namely,  GEdipus  and  the  Sphinx.  It  is  probably 
the  earliest  example  of  the  subject  extant.  This,  again,  is 
better  drawn  than  the  last  design.  But  for  the  portentous 
length  of  his  hair  and  the  amazing  curve  of  his  beard,  (Edi- 
pus  is  a  very  respectable-looking  personage.  The  Egyptian 
element  is  here  unmistakable.  The  sphinx  is  a  purely  Egyp- 
tian monster  and  of  immemorial  antiquity,  the  Great  Sphinx 
of  Ghizeh  being  probably  the  oldest  monument  in  Egypt. 


GRKEK    DANCING-GIRL. 

From  a  fragment  of  an  archaic  Greek 
vase  found  at  Daphnse. 


90 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


The  true  Egyptian  sphinx,  however,  has  the  head  of  a  beard- 
ed man  crowned  with  the  double  crown  of  the  Pharaohs. 
But  the  Greeks,  when  they  borrowed  the  sphinx  (as  they 
borrowed  so  much  else)  from  Egypt,  added  wings  to  the 
lion  body,  and  changed  the  bearded  head  of  the  god  into 
the  filleted  and  ringleted  head  of  a  Greek  woman.  In 
doing  thus,  they  lost  sight  of  the  old  Egyptian  myth  which 
identified  the  sphinx  with  Horus  in  one  of  his  transforma- 
tions, and  they  adapted  the  conception  to  one  of  their 
own  national  legends.  This  fragment  of  painted  ware  from 
Daphnae  marks,  therefore,  a  starting-point  in  the  history  of 
Greek  art.  Henceforth  the  sphinx  became  one  of  the  most 
familiar  of  Greek  decorative  subjects,  not  only  in  painting, 
but  in  sculpture  and  metal  -  work.  Sphinxes  were  repre- 
sented as  supporting 
the  arms  of  the  throne 
of  Zeus ;  and  a  sphinx- 
crest  surmounted  the 
helmet  of  Athena. 

A  great  advance  in 
freedom  of  drawing 
characterizes  our  next 
subject,  a  fine  painted 
plate  discovered  by 
Mr.  Petrie  in  the  ruins 
of  Kaukratis.  This  is 
really  a  plaque  -  paint- 
ing, two  small  holes 
pierced  through  the 
rim  of  the  plate  show- 
ing that  it  was  intend- 
ed for  suspension  on  the  wall.  The  lotus  ornament  at  the 
bottom  is,  like  the  sphinx,  borrowed  from  Egyptian  models. 
The  work  of  the  vase-painter  is  executed  with  singular  deli- 
cacy and  freedom,  only  four  colors  being  employed,  namely, 
yellow,  brown,  purple,  and  white — the  typical  four  colors  of 
the  earliest  school  of  Greek  painting.  These  were  the  four 


(EDIPUS    AND    THE    SPHINX. 

From  a  fragment  of  an  archaic  Greek  vase 
found  at  Daphnae. 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  91 

colors  of  the  palette  of  Polygnotus  and  his  contempora- 
ries; and  from  the  harmony  with  which  they  are  used  in 
this  charming  plaque -painting,  which  has  been  aptly  com- 
pared (")  with  the  panel-painting  of  the  early  Greek  artists, 
we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  style  and  treatment  of  the 
earliest  masters.  As  an  example  of  the  technique  of  a  lost 


PAINTED   PLATE    WITH   WINGED    SPHINX,  FOUND   AT   NAUKRATIS. 

school  of  art,  this  Naukratis  plate  is  invaluable.  It  is  cer- 
tainly not  later  than  500  B.C.,  and  it  is  more  probably  as 
early  as  600  B.  c.* 

Having  considered  these  few  examples  of  the  dominant 
Egyptian  influence  in  early  Greek  painting,  we  will  next 
observe  how  that  influence  affected  the  arts  of  Etruria. 

The  Etrurians  are  the  most  mysterious  people  of  antiquity. 

*  See  chap.  v.  on  "Egypt  the  Birthplace  of  Greek  Decorative  Art." 


92  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

"We  meet  with  them  in  the  sculptured  chronicles  of  ancient 
Egypt  as  the  Tursha,  and  in  the  pages  of  the  earliest  Greek 
writers  as  the  Tyrrhenes,  or  Turseni.(37)  According  to  an- 
cient tradition,  they  came  from  Lydia  in  prehistoric  times, 
and  colonized  Latium.  Certain  details  of  their  costumes 
and  customs  appear  to  be  identical  with  those  of  Lydia, 
and  the  legend  is  probably  based  upon  fact.  But  until 
the  inscriptions  of  Etruria  can  be  read,  we  are  not  likely 
to  solve  this  problem.  The  Etruscan  characters  closely  re- 
semble the  archaic  alphabets  of  Asia  Minor ;  but  no  schol- 
ar has  yet  succeeded  in  identifying  more  than  proper  names . 
and  the  names  of  deities. 

The  rock-cut  sepulchres  of  Etruria  are  singularly  Egyp- 
tian in  style,  and  the  wall  -  paintings  with  which  they  are 
decorated  bear  the  unmistakable  impress  of  Egyptian  teach- 
ing. A  very  interesting  series  of  Etruscan  paintings  on 
terra-cotta  slabs,  from  a  tomb  discovered  at  Cervetri,  were 
purchased  by  the  British  Museum  in  1889.  T\vo  of  these 
slabs  are  painted  with  fantastic  sphinxes,  winged  like  those 
of  Daphnse  and  Naukratis,  and  purely  decorative.  These 
sphinx  slabs  were  placed  apparently  on  either  side  of  the 
entrance  of  the  tomb.  The  others  contain  figures  walking, 
as  it  would  seem,  in  a  funerary  procession.  Some  carry  lotus 
plants  with  drooping  lotus  buds,  and  one  bears  a  kind  of  cov- 
ered vase,  or  perfume-jar.  The  women  wear  buskins  and  the 
men  greaves,  and  both  are  long-haired.  The  eyes  are  set,  as 
in  the  Egyptian  paintings,  frontwise  in  the  profile  face ;  and 
the  feet,  as  usual,  are  placed  the  one  precisely  in  advance  of 
the  other. 

The  accompanying  example  is  reproduced  from  a  chromo- 
lithographed  plate  in  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  1890. 

The  men  are  colored  red,  as  in  the  Egyptian  school,  and 
they  wear  pointed  beards,  like  the  (Edipus  of  the  Daphna3 
potsherd.  The  flesh-tints  of  the  woman  are  white.  The  bull- 
crested  standard  borne  by  the  middle  figure  is  purely  Egyp- 
tian, and  we  have  numberless  examples  of  the  type  in  Egyp- 
tian paintings  and  bas-reliefs  from  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


93 


downward.  This  Etruscan  tomb  was  evidently  the  tomb  of  a 
hero.  The  woman  carries  his  spear  and  wreath  of  victory ; 
the  first  man,  Avho  wears  a  white  tunic,  carries  his  stand- 
ard or  sceptre ;  the  second  man,  who  seems  to  be  in  the  act 
of  declaiming,  has  a  palm  branch  to  lay  upon  the  bier.  The 
Egyptian  influence  in  this  whole  series  of  painted  slabs  is 
quite  unmistakable. 

The  Egyptian  military  standard  was  generally  surmounted 
by  the  figure  of  a  lion  in  gilded  bronze,  the  lion  being  some- 
times surmounted  by  a  fan-shaped  ornament.  Now,  if  the 
Etruscans  borrowed  their  military  insignia  from  Egypt,  the 
Romans,  we  know,  borrowed  their  insignia  of  triumph  and  of 


ETRUSCAN    PAIXTKD    SLAB,   FOUND    AT    CERVKTRI. 


94  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

royalty  from  Etruria,  an  ivory  standard,  or  long-stemmed 
sceptre  surmounted  by  an  eagle,  being  invariably  carried  in 
their  triumphal  processions.  Thus,  the  eagles  borrowed  by 
the  first  Napoleon  from  the  classic  Caesars,  are  to  this  day 
the  lineal  representatives  of  the  insignia  of  Rome,  of  Etru- 
ria, and  of  ancient  Egypt. 

"We  have  now  cast  a  rapid  glance  at  some  few  examples 
of  the  three  earliest  schools  of  painting — the  Egyptian,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Etruscan ;  we  have  traced  the  influence  of 
Egyptian  teaching  upon  the  two  younger  nations ;  and  we 
have  seen  how  the  pupils  began  by  reproducing  and  even  ex- 
aggerating the  conventional  errors  of  their  masters.  Unlike 
the  Egyptians,  however,  they  did  not  go  on  perpetuating 
those  errors  from  age  to  age,  from  cycle  to  cycle.  They 
learned  to  look  at  nature  with  their  own  eyes,  and  to  paint, 
not  what  they  had  been  taught,  but  what  they  actually  saw. 
They  discovered,  for  instance,  that  objects  diminish  with  dis- 
tance ;  that  grass  in  sunshine  is  not  the  same  color  as  grass 
in  shadow;  that  a  man's  nose,  because  it  projects,  catches 
the  light.  They  discovered  that  it  was  possible,  merely  by 
imitating  the  natural  effects  of  light  and  shadow,  to  obtain 
a  semblance  of  relief  upon  a  perfectly  flat  surface.  In  a 
word,  they  discovered  the  laAvs  of  chiaroscuro,  and  with 
them  the  art  of  foreshortening,  which  is,  in  fact,  perspective 
applied  to  the  human  figure. 

Greek  tradition  ascribes  these  great  discoveries  to  an  Athe- 
nian named  Apollodorus,( 28 )  who  flourished  about  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  before  our  era ;  and  it  is  from  this  date 
that  the  true  art  of  painting  may  be  said  to  begin.  How  rap- 
idly the  great  Greek  school  developed,  and  to  what  a  height 
of  splendor  it  ultimately  attained.,  we  have  already  seen. 

The  Egyptians,  meanwhile,  went  on  in  the  old  grooves  for 
a  few  centuries  longer.  But  even  the  Egyptians  were  con- 
verted at  last ;  and  the  evidence  of  their  conversion  comes, 
strangely  enough,  from  the  cemetery  of  what  was  once  a 
fifth-rate  town  in  the  Fayum.  The  town  occupied  one  cor- 
ner of  an  immense  quadrangular  platform  artificially  raised 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  95 


THE    SITE    OF   THE    LABYRINTH. 


From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie.  In  the  foreground  is  seen  the 
level  sand  of  the  desert  and  the  vast  platform  of  chips  marking  the  position  of 
the  building.  The  brick  foundations  on  the  surface  of  the  platform  show  the 
lines  of  the  streets  of  the  Graeco-Roman  town. 


above  the  level  of  the  desert.  This  platform,  which  meas- 
ures one  thousand  feet  in  length  by  eight  hundred  in  breadth, 
represents  the  site  of  the  Labyrinth — that  famous  building 
of  which  it  was  said  by  Herodotus  that  it  was  "  larger  than 
all  the  temples  of  Greece  put  together,  and  more  wonderful 
than  the  pyramids/'  The  Labyrinth  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  order  of  the  Homan  Government  some  seventeen  or  eigh- 
teen centuries  ago,  and  all  that  remains  of  its  former  magnifi- 
cence is  this  platform,  heaped  six  feet  deep  with  thousands 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  tons  of  limestone  and  granite  chips. 
This  tremendous  destruction  was  undoubtedly  wrought  by 
order  of  the  Roman  Government,  and  the  people  who  smashed 
up  and  quarried  out  the  most  splendid  building  of  the  ancient 
world  lived  in  that  little  town  on  the  south-west  corner  of 


96  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS.  AND  EXPLORERS. 

the  platform.  As  they  went  on  clearing  the  site  they  made 
use  of  it  for  a  cemetery ;  and  so,  in  course  of  time,  the  last 
vestiges  of  the  Labyrinth  disappeared,  and  the  place  thereof 
became  a  city  of  the  dead.  It  was  this  cemetery  which  Mr. 
Petrie  explored  during  the  seasons  of  1887-88  and  1888-89 ; 
and  it  was  here  that  he  discovered  the  extraordinary  series  of 
portraits,  some  of  which  are  here  reproduced  from  his  origi- 
nal photographs.(S9) 

The  town  appears  to  have  contained  a  mixed  population 
consisting  of  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Syrians,  and  Eomans,  the 
Egyptians  being  for  the  most  part  small  tradesfolk,  artisans, 
servants,  and  slaves;  whereas  the  naturalized  foreigners- 
some  of  whom  were  resident  Roman  officials,  and  others  the 
descendants  of  Ptolemaic  Greeks  —  represented  the  aristoc- 
racy of  the  place.  Such,  at  all  events,  is  the  story  told  by 
their  graves ;  the  rich  mummy-cases  covered  with  gilding  be- 
ing mainly  inscribed  with  Greek  and  Eoman  names,  as  Arte- 
midorus,  Demetrius,  Titus,  and  the  like. 

The  town  continued  to  be  inhabited,  and  the  cemetery 
to  be  used,  for  several  generations,  during  which  time  the 
burial  customs  of  these  people  underwent  many  alterations. 
They  seem,  in  fact,  to  have  changed  their  fashions  for  the 
dead  almost  as  often  as  we  change  our  fashions  for  the  liv- 
ing. At  one  time  they  wrapped  them  in  elaborate  band- 
ages, and  enclosed  their  heads  and  feet  in  a  kind  of  piece- 
armor  of  stiffened  linen,  stuccoed,  painted,  and  gilded.  This 
piece-armor  consisted  of  a  head-piece,  breastplate,  and  foot- 
case,  the  head-piece  having  a  carefully  modelled  face  repre- 
senting the  features  of  the  deceased.  Later  on,  they  gave  up 
gilding  the  faces  and  substituted  color,  at  the  same  time  in- 
serting artificial  eyes,  and  even  imitating  the  hair,  as  it  was 
black  or  brown,  wavy  or  curly.  When  realistic  treatment 
in  modelled  stucco  had  been  carried  as  far  as  it  could  be  car- 
ried, the  fashion  changed  again,  and  a  portrait  painted  on 
flexible  canvas  was  laid  over  the  face  of  the  mummy.  A 
certain  degree  of  actual  relief  was  thus  obtained  by  the  prom- 
inence of  the  bandaged  features  beneath. 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


97 


From  the  flexible  canvas  it  was  but  one  bold,  last  step  to 
portraiture  on  a  flat  panel,  the  semblance  of  relief  bei no- 
given  by  light,  shadow,  and  foreshortening.  This  bold,  last 
step  marks  the  first  appearance  of  the  art  of  true  painting 
in  Egypt.  It  signalizes  the 
transition  from  the  Eastern  ~  - 

to  the  Western  school ;  it  signs 
the  death  -warrant  of  the  old 
conventional  Egyptian  system; 
and  it  coincides  in  point  of 
time  with  the  Emperor  Ha- 
drian's visit  to  Egypt  in  the 
year  A.D.  130.  That  visit 
brought  Western  culture  and 
Western  art  to  the  very  gates 
of  Thebes.  Thus,  three  hun- 
dred years  after  Apollodorus 
had,  as  Pliny  said,  "opened 
that  door  by  which  all  the 
great  Greek  painters  entered," 
Egypt — better  late  than  never 
—crossed  the  magic  threshold. 
Fettered  as  the  Egyptians  had 
been  by  the  traditions  of  their 
schools,  they  would  scarcely 
have  recognized  the  properties 

of  light  and  shadow,  or  the  value  of  color  in  transition, 
unless  their  eyes  had  been  opened  b}'  teachers  from  with- 
out. Greece,  however,  could  well  afford  to  pay  this  one 
instalment  of  her  enormous  debt  to  Egypt ;  and  Egypt 
could  afford  to  accept  this  gift  from  Greece,  who  owed  her 
all  the  rest. 

A  few  specimens  of  the  Greece-Egyptian  school  of  panel- 
portraiture  have  been  found  from  time  to  time  within  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  those  few  have  been  classed 
among  the  choicest  treasures  of  our  European  museums; 
but  it  was  not  until  1887  that  any  considerable  number 
7 


YOUNG    ORKEK. 


98 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


were  brought  to  light.  One  series  was  discovered  by  Arab 
diggers  at  a  place  called  Rubaiyat,  in  the  Fayum.  These 
were  purchased  by  II  err  Graff,  an  Austrian  gentleman,  and 
have  been  made  the  subject  of  a  pamphlet  by  Dr.  Ebers. 
The  other  series  was  discovered  about  the  same  time  by  Mr. 
Petrie  in  the  cemetery  of  this  Grasco-Roman  town  on  the 
Labyrinth  plateau. 

The  mummies  adorned  by  these  portraits  were  enclosed 
in  fine  cases  solidly  stuccoed  and  brilliantly  painted,  an 
oval  space  being  left  over  the  face  of  the  mummy,  in  which 
the  panel  was  inserted.  In  one  instance  the  panel,  instead 
of  being  laid  over  the  dead  face,  was  found  enclosed  in  a 

frame  of  the  modern  "  Oxford 
pattern,"  and  deposited  beside 
the  mummy  in  his  tomb.  It 
had  evidently  hung  in  his 
house  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  sitter,  the  cord  by  which  it 
was  anciently  suspended  being 
yet  knotted  round  the  corners- 
The  heads  are  painted  of 
life  size,  on  thin  cedar  panels 
measuring  about  seventeen 
inches  by  nine  inches,  and 
varying  from  one-sixteenth  to 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. In  the  earliest  specimens 
the  panel  is  found  to  have  been 
first  covered  with  a  thin  coat 
of  stucco,  on  which  the  por- 
trait is  painted  in  tempera; 
but  this  process  was  dry  and 

brittle,  and  the  color  flaked  off,  which  caused  it  soon  to  be 
abandoned  in  favor  of  a  medium  of  melted  beeswax.  The 
colors,  being  in  powder,  mixed  readily  with  the  wax,  and 
were  laid  on  with  a  stiff  reed-brush  fuzzed  out  at  the  end, 
such  as  had  been  used  by  the  old  Egyptian  painters  from 


KOYTTIAN    ROY, 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


99 


time  immemorial.  The  panel  was  first  covered  with  a  prim- 
ing of  distemper.  Then  came  the  ground  color,  which  was 
generally  laid  in  of  a  leaden  tint  for  the  background,  and 
of  a  flesh  tint  for  the  face  and  neck.  The  next  step  was  to 
outline  the  features  with  the  brush  — this  being  generally 
done  in  a  purple  hue— and  the  last  was  to  work  in  the  sur- 
face color,  or  painting  proper, 
the  hot  sun  of  Egypt  sufficing  to 
keep  the  wax  in  a  creamy  and 
manageable  condition.  This 
method,  as  practised  in  Egypt, 
cannot  have  been  identical  with 
what  is  commonly  called  the 
"encaustic  painting  of  the  an- 
cients." That  was  a  difficult  and 
laborious  process,  the  colors  be- 
ing fused  on  the  picture  by  means 
of  a  red-hot  implement  described 
by  Pliny  as  "a  punching-iron." 
No  artificial  heat  was  needed  in 
Egypt,  and  the  colors  were  un- 
doubtedly applied  with  the  reed- 
brush,  the  fibres  of  which  are 
clearly  traceable  in  these  Fayum 

portraits.  Also,  the  encaustic  was  a  slow  process,  whereas 
these  bold  and  sketchy  heads  evince  the  utmost  rapidity  of 
execution. 

As  for  the  pigments  employed,  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  analyze  them  without  destroying  a  picture,  but  for 
the  fortunate  discovery  of  the  grave  of  an  artist,  whose  paint- 
saucers  were  laid  beside  his  head — six  in  number,  piled  one 
upon  the  other.  They  prove  to  contain  : 

1.  Dark  red,  made  from  oxide  of  iron,  with  a  small  ad- 
mixture of  sand,  making  a  good  sienna  color.  2.  Yellow, 
made  from  ochre  and  oxide  of  iron,  and  a  little  alumina. 
3.  White,  made  from  sulphate  of  lime  and  gypsum.  4.  Red, 
made  from  minium  and  oxide  of  lead,  and  apparently  some 


OPKKK    LADY. 


100 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


alumina.  5.  Blue,  made  of  glass  colored  by  copper,  and 
ground  to  a  blue  powder.  6.  Pink,  made  with  sulphate  of 
lime  colored  with  some  organic  substance,  which  is  almost 
certainly  madder. 

One  question  connected  with  these  ancient  and  remark- 
able portraits  can  never  be  satisfactorily  resolved ;  namely, 
to  what  extent  they  represent  the  work  of  native  Egyptian 
artists.  Some,  and  probably  the  best,  will  almost  certainly 
have  been  executed  by  Greek  and  Roman  painters  settled 

in  Egypt;  others  will  be  the 
work  of  Egyptians  who  had 
studied  in  the  Greek  schools. 
We  may  perhaps,  with  more  or 
less  accuracy,  guess  which  are 
due  to  the  alien,  and  which  to 
the  native  hand ;  but  such  guess- 
ins1  is  necessarily  inconclusive. 

O  v 

"With  far  more  certainty  is  it 
possible  to  trace  the  nationality 
of  these  various  personages,  some 
of  whom  are  identified  by  the 
names  inscribed  on  their  ban- 
dages and  mummy-cases,  while 
others,  who  are  anonymous,  are 
as  surely  identified  by  their  ra- 
cial characteristics.  Some  are 
unmistakably  Roman;  others  are 
unmistakably  Greek ;  while  in 
others  again  we  recognize  Egyp- 
tian, Nubian,  and  Semitic  types. 
Neither  is  it  difficult  to  clas- 
sify the  paintings  in  something  like  chronological  order. 
The  costumes,  the  style  of  wearing  the  hair,  and  even  the 
fashions  of  the  jewellery  as  depicted  in  the  likenesses  of 
women,  afford  valuable  data  for  comparison  with  the  por- 
trait-sculptures of  the  Romans,  and  with  the  wall-paintings 
of  Latium  and  Campania.  Coins  have  also  been  occasionally 


KRYPTIAN    LADY 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  101 

found  with  the  mummies;  and  the  testimony  of  coins  is  in- 
valuable. Lastly,  there  is  the  evidence  of  technique  and  ex- 
ecution, as  shown  by  the  rejection  of  tempera  in  favor  of 
beeswax,  and  the  progressive  mastery  of  materials  and  effects 
on  the  part  of  the  painters.  That 
so  many  of  the  heads  should  be 
portraits  of  Greeks  and  Romans 
is  no  more  than  we  might  expect. 
Egypt  had  been  flooded  with 
Greeks  during  the  two  hundred 
and  seventy-four  years  of  Mace- 
donian rule,  and  the  descendants 
of  these  friendly  invaders  long 
continued  to  form  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  population.  Mean- 
while the  Romans,  as  actual  ru- 
lers of  the  country,  administered 
the  civil  and  military  govern- 
ment, and  were  everywhere  in 
force  from  Alexandria  to  Syene, 
and  from  Syene  to  Ibrim.  The 
inevitable  result  followed.  Ar- 
tists and  artisans,  embroiderers, 

jewellers,  house-decorators  and  portrait-painters  found  their 
best  patrons  among  these  Greek  settlers  and  Roman  auto- 
crats, in  whose  hands  the  wealth  of  the  country,  as  well  as 
the  power,  was  practically  vested.  It  was  for  them  that 
the  richest  stuffs  were  woven,  the  finest  houses  built,  the 
costliest  ear-rings,  necklaces,  and  fibula  designed.  It  was 
also  for  them  that  the  most  gorgeous  mummy-cases  were  ex- 
ecuted. Engrafting  upon  their  own  religion  certain  of  the 
beliefs  and  rites  yet  current  in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile,  these 
aristocratic  Greeks  and  Romans  embalmed  their  dead  ''after 
the  manner  of  the  Egyptians,"  and  even  adopted  names  com- 
posed with  the  names  of  Egyptian  deities.  The  Lady  Isa- 
rous,  whose  name  is  painted  in  Greek  characters  on  either 
side  of  her  neck,  and  whose  features  are  distinctly  Greek, 


DIOGENKS    THK    FI.UTK-PLAYKR. 


10'2 


PHARAOHS.  FELLAHS.  AND  EXPLORERS. 


was  a  votary  of  Isis,  Isarous  being  a  somewhat  clumsy  tran- 
scription of  /Mi'-an'-ft,  or  Ast-ari-s — a  name  which  is  found  in 
its  original  Egyptian  form  upon  a  funerary  tablet  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  which  signifies  "  Isis  made  her." 
Another  name  composed  with  that  of  Isis  is  "Ision;"  and 
another,  evidently  derived  from  Ari-n-Amcn  ("made  by 
Amen"),  is  "  Ammonarin."  "  Sarapis  "  (misspelled,  of  course, 
for  "Serapis")  was  written  on  the  breast  of  one  of  the  finest 
of  these  portrait-mummies,  both  mummy  and  portrait  being 
now  in  the  national  Egyptian  collection.  It  is  interesting  to 

note  how  Isis  and  Amen  were 
always  the  Egyptian  deities 
most  in  favor  with  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  how  they 
identified  Apis,  under  the  name 
of  "  Serapis,"  with  Zeus  and 
Jupiter.  "Ta-Ast,"  an  Egyp- 
tian name  signifying  the  "gift 
of  Isis,"  became  a  favorite 
Greek  and  Roman  name  under 
the  form  of  "  Isidora,"  and  it 
survives  to  this  day  in  the 
French  "  Isidore." 

Some  of  the  panel  portraits 
found  on  these  Hawara  mum- 
mies are  surrounded  by  a  dec- 
orative border  of  gilt  stucco, 
representing  vine-tendrils  and 
grapes.  This  bordering,  as  a 
rule,  is  modelled  on  the  panel, 
though  in  some  instances  it  is 
found  to  be  moulded  on  a  can- 
vas ground  and  laid  round  the  picture.  The  portraits  thus 
decorated  are  among  the  earliest  in  date,  beginning,  that  is  to 
say,  about  130  B.C.  In  our  two  first  examples,  a  young  Greek 
gentleman  and  a  plebeian-looking  boy  (pp.  97,  98),  in  whose 
saucy  eyes,  open  nostrils,  thick  lips,  and  swarthy  skin  I  cannot 


ROMAN    HEAD. 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING   IN   ANCIENT  EGYPT.  103 

but  recognize  the  prototype  of  the  native  Egyptian  donkey- 
boy  of  our  own  time,*  we  have  excellent  specimens  of  the 
Hawara  school  of  portraiture  at  the  beginnino-  of  its  career. 
The  light  and  shadow  in  the  Greek  head  is  very  forcible,  and 
the  spirit  and  character  con- 
veyed in  the  other  are  quite 
remarkable.  The  Greek  wears 
a  white  chiton  with  a  purple 
stripe  on  the  right  shoulder, 
and  the  boy  a  yellow  chiton 
with  a  narrow  purple  stripe, 
and  a  yellow  himation  over  the 
left  shoulder. 

The  Greek  lady  on  page  99  is 
very  gayly  attired  in  a  scarlet 
chiton  bordered  by  a  broad 
band  of  black  edged  with  gold, 
and  she  wears  a  black  himation 
over  the  left  shoulder.  Her  ear- 
rings consist  of  a  large  ball  sus- 
pended from  a  smaller  ball ;  the 
jewellery  being  modelled  on 
the  panel  in  stucco,  and  gilt 
with  gold  leaf.  These  ball  ear- 
rings appear  to  have  been  es- 
pecially fashionable  about  the  time  of  Hadrian — that  is  to 
say,  during  the  early  period  of  the  Hawara  school  of  por- 
traiture— and  the  ball  or  disk  covered  with  small  clustered 
balls,  as  in  this  portrait,  is  but  a  variation  upon  a  more  sim- 
ple design.  This  lady  is  clearly  a  Greek.  The  nose  and 
forehead  are  in  one  unbroken  line,  the  eyes  are  well  spaced 
and  well  opened,  and  the  mouth  is  prettily  drawn.  She 
wears  her  hair  in  a  style  which  is  familiar  to  us  in  Roman 


YOUNG    KRKKK    WITH    GILT   OLIVE- 
WRKATH. 


*  Neither  of  these  mummies  bore  any  indication  of  name  or  nationality. 
Mr.  Cecil  Smith  conjecturally  describes  the  boy  as  Roman,  but  it  seems  to 
rne  that  his  Egyptian  type  (of  the  plebeian  class)  is  unmistakable. 


lOi 


1'IIARAOIIS,   KELLAIIS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


portrait  -  busts  of  this  age;  and  the  bands  of  open-work 
which  pass  under  the  bodice  of  her  dress  and  over  each 
shoulder  are  very  probably  of  knotted  thread,  like  the  caps 
and  head-scarfs  found  by  Mr.  Tetrie  in  many  of  these  Ha 
warn  graves.(30) 

For  a  lavish  display  of  jewellery,  however,  and  a  curious 
variety  of  patterns,  the  native  Egyptian  lady  reproduced 
on  page  100  surpasses  all  her  compeers.  On  her  head,  she 
wears  a  gold  wreath  fashioned  in  imitation  of  the  victor's 
wreath  of  laurel  leaves  ;  in  her  ears,  elaborate  ear-rings  con- 
sisting of  a  pearl  drop,  from 
which  hangs  a  crossbar  of  gold 
with  three  pendant  pearls;  and 
round  her  neck,  two  necklaces — 
the  upper  one  a  string  of  alter- 
nate pearls  and  garnets,  and  the 
lower  one  a  gold  chain  with  a 
small  crescent-shaped  pendant. 
Her  features  are  moulded  in  the 
unmistakable  Egyptian  type. 
The  eyes  are  long  and  heavy- 
lidded,  the  nostrils  wide,  the  lips 
full  and  prominent.  The  com- 
plexion is  swarthy,  with  a  dull 
reddish  blush  under  the  skin, 
and  the  whole  expression  of  the 
face  is  that  of  Oriental  languor. 
We  may  conclude  that  this  lady 
belonged  to  one  of  the  few 
wealthy  native  families  yet  re- 
maining in  the  Fayum.  Unfor- 
tunately, there  is  no  record  of 
her  name.  The  portrait  is  well 

but  somewhat  coarsely  painted,  and  it  looks  as  though  it 
were  a  successful  likeness. 

Finer  by  far,  as  a  work  of  art,  is  the  portrait  of  a  young 
man  named  Diogenes  (p.  101).     He  was  apparently  a  pro- 


UOMAX    LADY. 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  1Q5 

fessional  musician.  A  small  Avooden  label  found  with  the 
mummy-case  calls  him  "  Diogenes  of  the  Flute  of  Arsinoe  f 
while  a  second  inscription,  written  in  ink  upon  one  of 
the  mummy -wrappings,  describes  him  as  -Diogenes  who 
abode  at  the  Harp  when  he  was  alive."  From  these  it  is 
evident  that  he  was  a  flautist,  born  in  the  city  of  Arsinoe, 
and  that  when  he  came  to  live 
at  Hawara,  he  lodged  at  the  sign 
of  the  Harp.  The  panel,  like  too 
many  others,  is  badly  cracked ; 
but  the  head  is  so  characteristic, 
and  the  expression  so  fine,  that 
not  even  this  blemish  mars  its 
effect.  There  is  a  set  look  in 
the  face,  as  of  some  solemn  pur- 
pose to  be  fulfilled ;  and  the  eyes 
arrest  us,  like  the  eyes  of  a  living 
man.  The  hair  is  very  thick  and 
curly,  and  the  features  are  dis- 
tinctly Jewish  in  type.  That  he 
should  be  a  Jew  would  be  quite 
in  accordance  with  his  profes- 
sion for  the  gift  of  music  has 
ever  been  an  inheritance  of  the 
children  of  Israel. 

Finer  than  even  the  Diogenes, 
though  in  a  different  way,  is  an 

admirable  character-study  of  a  shrewd-looking,  hard-featured 
Roman  (p.  102).  The  man  is  somewhat  on  the  wrong  side 
of  fifty.  His  face  is  deeply  furrowed,  probably  by  business 
cares,  and  he  looks  straight  out  from  the  panel  with  the  alert 
and  resolute  air  of  one  who  is  intent  on  a  profitable  bargain. 
The  artist  has  not  flattered  him.  His  nose  is  bent,  as  if  from 
a  blow,  and  about  the  lines  of  the  mouth  there  is  a  hint  of 
humor,  grim  and  caustic,  which  has  been  caught  with  evi- 
dent fidelity.  Unlike  the  rest  of  the  portraits,  this  head  is  a 
detached  study  thrown  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  panel, 


UO.MANO-KGYPTIAN    LADY. 


lUO  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

with  no  attempt  at  drapery  or  finish.  When  Sir  Frederick 
Burton,  Director  of  the  English  National  Gallery,  saw  this 
series  of  heads  on  exhibition  at  the  Egyptian  Hall,  Picca- 
dillv,  in  1888,  a  few  weeks  after  they  had  been  discovered, 
he  pronounced  our  elderly  "Roman  to  be  "  worth  all  the  rest 
put  together"— not,  of  course,  as  ua  thing  of  beauty,"  but 
for  force,  character,  and  mastery  of  the  painter's  craft.  On 
heal-in"-  this  verdict,  the  owner  of  the  picture,  who  had  in- 
tended it  for  his  private  collec- 
tion, generously  presented  it, 

with  two  others,  to  the  Nation- 

>  i       i    A 

al  Gallery. 

There  is  not  only  individuality 
but  spirit  in  the  head  of  a  young 
Greek  reproduced  on  page  103. 
The  eyes  are  bright  and  trans- 
lucent ;  the  nose  is  well  shaped  ; 
the  chin  is  disproportionately 
long.  Dashed  off  in  hot  haste,  the 
effect  is  brilliant  but  sketchy,  as 
if  done  at  one  sitting.  The  hair  is 
apparently  unfinished ;  the  back- 
ground is  flung  upon  "the  panel 
with  a  few  strokes  of  a  broad 
brush,  every  fibre  of  which  is 
traceable :  and  the  artist,  con- 
tent to  get  in  the  effect  of  the 
white  chiton,  has  not  even  car- 
ried it  down  to  the  bottom  of 

the  picture.  Our  young  Greek  was  probably  somewhat  of 
a  petit-matt/'e,  for  the  olive  wreath  on  his  head  is  gilded. 
This  reminds  us  of  the  golden  wreaths  and  golden  sandal- 
clasps  of  Xeuxis,  and  other  painter-princes  of  the  golden 
age  of  Hellenic  art,  and  it  is  interesting  to  find  this  special 
piece  of  dandyism  surviving  down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian. 

There  is  no  lack  of  expression  in  the  dejected  counte- 
nance of  the  Roman  lady  who  follows  on  page  104.     Her 


THE    STODKNT 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN   ANCIENT  EGYPT.  107 

features  wear  the  stamp  of  long. continued  ill-health;  her 
complexion  is  "sicklied  o'er"  with  suffering;  and  her' eyes 
are  encircled  by  heavy  purple  rings.  One  would  say  that  she 
knew  but  too  well,  while  sitting  for  this  portrait,  that  it 
would  erelong  be  transferred 
from  the  picture-frame  to  her 
coffin.  She  wears  her  black 
hair  in  a  curiously  modern  fash- 
ion, gathered  up  in  a  thick  coil 
at  the  back,  parted  down  the 
middle,  and  laid  in  plain  bands. 
Her  gown  is  purple,  with  n, 
square-cut  bodice  trimmed  \vith 
a  broad  black  and  gold  braid ; 
and  over  her  shoulders  is  cast  a 
purple  himation.  The  necklace 
consists  of  large  pale -green 
opaque  stones,  cut  in  the  form 
of  oblong  parallelograms,  con- 
nected by  slender  gold  wrires. 
Mr.  Cecil  Smith  takes  them  for 
green  beryls ;  but  they  are,  I 
think,  more  probably  intended  to 
represent  the  so-called  "mother- 
of-emerald,"  a  stone  which  was 
popular  in  Egypt  under  the  Ro- 
mans, and  has  frequently  been  found  in  graves  of  this  period. 
In  the  head  of  the  next  lady  (p.  105)  it  is  impossible  not  to 
recognize  a  portrait  which  is  not  only  a  portrait  but  a  likeness. 
She  is  probably  of  Romano -Egyptian  parentage.  The  eye- 
brows and  eyelashes  are  singularly  thick  and  dark  ;  the  eyes 
long,  and  of  Oriental  depth  and  blackness ;  and  the  swarthi- 
ness  of  the  complexion  is  emphasized  by  the  dark  down  on 
the  upper  lip.  It  is  a  passionate,  intense-looking  face — the 
face  of  a  woman  with  a  history.  She  wears  her  black  hair 
cut  in  a  short  fringe  round  the  brow,  and  laid  in  two  long 
roll-curls,  like  the  hair  of  the  Greek.  Her  ear-rings  consist 


THK    GLADIATOR, 


108  PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS.  AND   EXPLORERS. 

of  a  single  pearl  from  which  is  suspended  a  horizontal  bar 
of  gold,  while  from  this  bar  hang  two  more  pearls,  each  ter- 
minated by  a  pyramidal  cluster  of  three  small  gold  balls. 
The  necklace  is  particularly  interesting,  being  the  only  rep- 
resentation of  an  elaborate  Egyptian  collarette  in  the  whole 
series.  It  is  three  rows  deep,  the  two  upper  rows  being 
apparently  of  chain- work,  while  the  lowest  row  consists  of  lo- 
tus-bud pendants,  colored  red  to  represent  carnelian.  Neck- 
laces of  these  carnelian  lotus -bud  pendants  are  frequent- 
ly found  with  mummies  of  the  Roman  period,  and  many 
fine  specimens  enrich  the  glass-cases  of  the  principal  Euro- 
pean museums.  The  design  is  of  remote  antiquity,  and 
the  lotus  pendant  in  glass  and  porcelain  is  found  in  graves 
of  Pharaonic  times  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  Etruscans  copied 
it  at  an  early  date,  changing  the  lotus-bud,  either  intention- 
ally or  by  mistake,  into  the  amphora,  which  it  resembles  in 
form  ;  and  it  is  this  very  lotus-bud  pendant  of  Egypt  which 
we  find  reproduced  in  the  delicate  and  elegant  gold  am- 
phora necklaces  of  Etruria.  Revived  by  Signor  Castellan i 
of  Rome,  this  exquisite  design  again  became  popular  during 
the  later  half  of  the  present  century. 

The  young  Greek  who  comes  next  (p.  106)  has  a  modern 
type  of  face,  good  features,  and  a  grave  preoccupied  expres- 
sion, such  as  might  become  a  student  of  philosophy  or  sci- 
ence. The  brows  are  slightly  knitted,  as  if  from  habitual 
meditation;  the  head  is  well  posed  and  well  balanced;  and 
the  hair  is  remarkably  free  and  well  put  in.  He  wears  a  dull 
green  chiton  with  a  purple  stripe  on  the  right  shoulder,  and 
a  himation  of  the  same  color.  The  panel  is  slightly  cracked 
in  several  places. 

In  going  through  this  series  of  paintings,  one  curious  and 
interesting  question  inevitably  suggests  itself ;  namely,  the 
immediate  object  with  which  these  portraits  were  executed. 
"Were  they  painted  for  the  pleasure  of  the  sitter  and  his  fam- 
ily, and  for  the  adornment  of  private  houses  ?  Or  were  they 
painted  expressly  for  the  decoration  of  mummy-cases,  and 
in  commemoration  of  the  dead  ?  If  the  former,  then  they 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


109 


were,  of  course,  done  from  the  life  ;  if  the  latter,  is  it  pos- 
sible that  they  were  painted  after  death  ? 

These  are  questions  which  have  been  discussed  by  several 
competent  authorities,  but  which,  from  their  nature,  cannot 
be  satisfactorily  settled.  The 
fact  that  one  framed  portrait  was 
found  laid  up  against  the  mum- 
my-case in  the  grave,  and  that 
the  cord  by  which  it  had  once 
been  suspended  was  yet  knotted 
round  the  transverse  bars  at  the 
corners  of  that  frame,  gives  con- 
clusive proof  that  the  people  of 
this  town  loved  portraiture  for 
itself,  and  hung  their  portraits 
in  their  rooms,  as  \ve  do  now. 
Such  portraits,  as  a  rule,  would 
probably  be  copied  on  smaller 
panels  for  funerary  purposes, 
and  this  would  account  for  their 
bright  and  life-like  expression. 
Where  no  previous  portrait  ex- 
isted, it  may  reasonably  be  sup- 
posed that  an  artist  would  be 
summoned,  and  a  sketchy  like- 
ness would  be  hastily  painted  on  a  panel  of  the  required 
size,  immediately  after  death.  If  we  compare  the  heads 
reproduced  in  these  pages,  it  is  not  difficult  to  conjecture 
which  are  studies  from  the  life,  and  which  are  studies  after 
death.  Some  of  the  least  expressive  faces  may  very  possi- 
bly owe  their  passive  vacuity  to  the  fact  that  "life  and 
thought  had  gone  away "  before  the  artist  came  with  his 
saucers  of  powdered  colors,  his  reed  -  brushes,  and  his  pot 
of  melted  beeswax,  to  transfer  their  pallid  features  to  that 
narrow  panel  which  was  destined  to  adorn  the  mummy-case 
when  the  prescribed  seventy  days  of  embalmment  should 
have  expired.  In  these  portraits,  and  some  others,  the  eyes 


YOUNG    t.ADY    IN    PURPLE    CHITON. 


110  PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

are  represented  unnaturally  large,  and  with  a  fixed  stare, 
such  as  might  be  given  by  an  artist  who  had  never  seen  his 
subject  while  living,  and  who  added  the  eyes  from  his  imag- 
ination. The  head  of  a  coarse  -  featured,  plebeian -looking 
Ivoman  (p.  107),  who  should  certainly  be  a  prize-fighter  or  a 
gladiator,  is  a  case  in  point.  There  is  no  "  speculation"  in  his 
eves,  which  are  much  too  large ;  the  whole  effect  being  that 
of  a  rapid  sketch  after  death.  The  head  of  Diogenes  the  flute- 
player  (p.  101),  the  young  Greek  with  the  meditative  brow 
(p.  (JS),  the  vivacious  youth  with  the  gilt  olive  wreath  (p.  103), 
the  intense-looking  Romano-Egyptian  dame  with  the  dark 
eyebrows  (p.  105),  and  one  or  two  others,  bear  the  direct 
impress  of  vitality,  and  cannot  possibly  be  anything  but 
studies,  or  copies  of  studies,  from  the  living  sitter. 

So,  too,  I  think,  is  the  sweet  and  gracious  portrait  of  a 
fair-skinned  girl  (p.  109),  with  chestnut  hair,  and  soft  brown 
eyes,  and  a  mouth  every  curve  of  which  is  drawn  with  ex- 
quisite delicacy  and  truth.  Was  she  a  Greek?  Or  was  she 
not,  more  probably,  of  Grseco-Asiatic  parentage  ?  Her  com- 
plexion is  of  that  creamy-olive  tint  which  bespeaks  a  touch 
of  Oriental  blood ;  and  in  the  crisp  waviness  of  her  hair,  the 
languorous  tenderness  of  her  eyes,  and  the  arched  black 
eyebrows,  I  think  I  detect  traces  of  her  Cypriote  or  Lycian 
ancestry.  Her  purple  chiton  is  gathered  in  classic  folds 
across  her  bosom,  and  on  her  shoulders  she  wears  a  mantle 
of  the  same  color.  In  her  ears  are  hoop  ear-rings,  each  set 
with  three  emeralds,  and  round  her  neck  she  wears  two 
necklaces — the  upper  one  of  gold  beads  and  emeralds  alter- 
nately, the  lower  a  string  of  garnets  writh  a  centre  orna- 
ment of  one  large  emerald  and  two  pendant  pearls.  This  is 
a  charming  portrait,  well  and  carefully  painted,  and  in  ex- 
cellent preservation.  Equally  well  preserved,  and  perhaps 
even  more  interesting,  is  the  beautiful  and  touching  head  of 
a  young  boy  (p.  Ill)  with  which  our  little  port  rait -gallery 
ends.  He,  too,  is  of  mixed  descent — probably  Graeco-Egyp- 
tian,  or  Grseco-Asiatic.  The  complexion  is  of  a  clear  dark 
olive ;  the  eyes  are  large,  black,  luminous,  and  informed  by  a 


PORTRAIT-PAINTING   IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  HI 

gentle  melancholy,  as  if  he  had  some  presentiment  of  early 
death.  The  hair  is  black,  curling,  and  abundant,  and  on  the 
upper  hp  we  note  the  soft  black  down  of  an  incipient  mus- 
tache. The  mouth  repeats  the  sweet  and  delicate  curves 
which  are  so  charming  in  the  mouth 
of  the  young  giri  just  gone  before. 
There  is,  in  fact,  a  certain  likeness 
between  the  two  faces.  Xot  only 
the  mouths  are  alike,  but  the  eyes, 
and  the  peculiar  curvature  of  the 
dark  eyebrows.  The  names  of  both 
are  unknown  to  us,  but  the  resem- 
blance is  just  what  we  might  ex- 
pect to  find  between  a  sister  and 
brother.  The  age  of  this  boy  was 
about  twelve  or  thirteen,  and  the 
size  of  the  mummy  corresponds 
with  the  age  indicated  by  the  por- 
trait— both  portrait  and  mummy 
being  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  mummy  is  very  beautifully 
and  elaborately  bandaged,  five  or 
six  strips  of  saffron-colored  linen 
being  used  in  successive  layers,  and 
so  disposed,  layer  above  layer,  as 
to  form  a  diamond-shaped,  recessed 

pattern,  sunken  in  the  centre,  and  terminating  in  a  kind  of 
knob,  or  button,  at  the  bottom. 

These  are  but  a  few  examples  selected  from  Air.  Petrie's 
splendid  series  of  funerary  portraits ;  but  they  suffice  to  show 
that  there  was  not  only  a  school  of  art,  but  an  art-market,  in 
this  obscure  little  provincial  town  during  the  second  and  third 
centuries  of  our  era.  The  demand  for  portraiture  being  very 
considerable,  the  supply  naturally  varied  in  quality  to  suit 
the  means  of  all  comers.  Hence  the  inequality  of  the  paint- 
er's work.  Those  who  could  afford  to  pay  for  the  best  art 
commanded  the  best  art,  while  those  who  were  less  wealthy, 


YOUNG    BOY 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

or  more  thrifty,  patronized  the  sign-board  school.  Remem- 
bering  the  fabulous  prices  which  Xeuxis  and  Apelles,  and  the 
rest,  received  for  their  pictures  a  few  centuries  earlier,  one 
would  like  to  know  after  what  rate  the  Fayum  painters  were 
paid  ;  and  it  is  always  possible  that  among  the  hundreds  of 
fragmentary  papyri  found  by  Mr.  Petrie  on  this  spot,  some 
may  prove  to  contain  entries  of  payments  made  or  received 
on  account  of  one  of  these  very  portraits. 

One  very  striking  feature  of  the  Fayum  portraits  is  the 
modern  character  of  the  heads.  There  is  not  a  face  in  the 
whole  series  which  we  might  not  meet  any  day  in  the  streets 
of  London  or  New  York.  There  is  nothing  to  surprise  us  in 
this  fact ;  and  yet,  so  accustomed  are  we  to  think  of  the  men 
and  women  of  the  far  past  as  the  dramatis  person®,  of  ancient 
history,  and  as  belonging  to  another  age,  that  it  is  with  a 
shock  of  something  like  incredulous  astonishment  that  we 
find  them  so  precisely  like  ourselves.  The  truth  probably  is 
that  as  regards  features,  stature,  and  complexion,  the  ancient 
Egyptians  differed  very  little,  if  at  all,  from  the  Copts  of  the 
present  day ;  and  that  the  Greeks  and  Romans  of  the  classic 
period  were  actually  more  like  the  people  of  northern  Europe 
than  are  their  modern  descendants.  Hadrian,  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  Lucius  Verus,  and  many  another  noble  Roman  who  yet 
lives  in  marble  and  bronze,  far  more  nearly  resembles  the 
type  of  the  modern  Englishman  than  that  of  the  modern 
Italian.  Seneca,  Germanicus,  and  Julius  Cassar  might  pass 
for  typical  Americans.  Past  or  present,  we  are  in  truth  but 
members  of  one  great  family;  and  as  we  look  through  this 
ancient  and  interesting  portrait-gallery,  we  cannot  but  recog- 
nize our  kinship  with  these  men  and  women,  these  youths 
and  maidens,  who  lived  and  loved  and  died  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years  ago.  Yet  even  these  are  but  things  of  yesterday 
compared  with  the  Ethiopian  subjects  in  the  tomb  of  Hui  at 
El  Kab,  or  with  the  paintings  of  the  four  races  of  men  in  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  at  Thebes.  And  in  these  we  see  depicted 
racial  types  which  survive  unchanged  to  the  present  day  in 
Nubia  and  Palestine. 


THE   GREAT  SPHINX. 

IV. 
THE   OEIGIN  OF  POETEAIT   SCULPTURE, 

AND   THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  "KA." 

IT  has  been  said  by  a  celebrated  poet  that  "  the  proper 
study  of  mankind  is  man."  This  sweeping  proposition  was 
accepted  as  an  axiom  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  ingenious 
Mr.  Pope;  but  to  our  nineteenth  century  ears  it  sounds,  per- 
haps, too  much  like  an  epigram.  We  should,  I  think,  prefer 
to  say  that  the  most  interesting  study  of  mankind  is  man. 
Certain  it  is,  that  whatsoever  concerned  man  in  the  past 
concerns  and'interests  ourselves  in  the  present.  Hence  the 
eagerness  with  which  we  track  his  footsteps  down  the  patli 
of  the  centuries.  From  that  far-distant  age  when  we  catch 
our  first  glimpse  of  the  prehistoric  cave-dweller  chipping 
flint  arrow-heads  wherewith  to  wage  war  against  the  hyena 
and  the  mammoth,  down  to  the  pleasant  "teacup  time"  of 
the  day  before  yesterday,  when  Adam  carried  a  clouded  cane 
8 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

and  Eve  wore  hoops  and  patches,  we  are  always  eagerly  cu- 
rious to  know  what  our  forefathers  were  like,  how  they  lived, 
and  wherewithal  they  were  clothed.  This  is  why  the  art  of 
portraiture  touches  us  more  nearly  than  any  other.  It  brings 
us  literally  face  to  face  with  those  who  lived  and  loved  and 
died  "  in  the  old  time  before  us."  It  preserves  for  us  the  feat- 
ures, the  expression,  the  costumes  of  Pharaohs  and  Ca?sars 
discrowned,  of  orators  long  silent,  of  beauties  long  faded,  of 
heroes  whose  swords  are  rust,  of  poets  whose  lutes  are  dust, 
and  who,  but  for  the  accidental  preservation  of  a  bas-relief, 
a  bust,  a  coin,  or  a  painting,  would  have  passed  away  like 
shadows  and  been  no  more  seen. 

By  the  extent  of  our  wealth  in  the  possession  of  certain 
portraits  we  may  estimate  what  our  poverty  would  have 
been  without  them.  We  can  scarcely  realize,  for  instance, 
the  difference  it  would  have  made  to  us  had  we  possessed  no 
likeness  of  Shakespeare.  We  are  as  familiar  with  his  honest 
English  face  and  massive  head  as  if  the  man  himself  were 
yet  among  the  living.  But  could  we  have  felt  the  same  per- 
sonal affection  for  him,  or  even  quite  the  same  personal  pride 
in  him,  if  there  had  been  no  bust  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  and 
no  Dreyschout  engraving  to  the  folio  of  1623  ?  Dante,  again 
— Chaucer,  Albert  Diirer,  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  a 
hundred  others  whom  we  could  name  in  a  breath — think 
what  our  loss  would  be  if  their  faces  were  a  blank  to  us ! 
As  for  history,  Avhat  would  history  be  without  the  personal- 
ity of  those  kings  and  captains  Avho  have  moulded  the  desti- 
nies of  nations  from  Alexander  to  Wellington  ? 

But  the  interest  of  portraiture  is  not  merely  historical ; 
it  is  also  ethnographical.  The  sculptures  of  Assyria  and 
Babylon,  of  Susa  and  Persepolis,  record  racial  characteris- 
tics, and  enable  us  to  trace  the  origin,  and  sometimes  to  track 
the  migrations,  of  peoples  and  tribes. 

Lastly,  there  is  the  human  interest — that  interest  which 
we  take  in  the  counterfeit  presentment  of  our  fellow- man 
simply  because  he  was  our  fellow-man,  and  because  the  por- 
trait is  stamped  with  his  individuality.  He  may  have  lived 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  Ho 

fifty  or  five  thousand  years  ago ;  his  very  name  may  be  un- 
known to  us ;  but  if  the  ancient  artist  was  a  master  of  his 
craft,  and  if  he  has  handed  down  to  us  a  face  instinct  with 
power  or  furrowed  by  thought,  that  face  arrests  us  and  holds 
us  like  the  face  of  a  living  man.  So  long,  indeed,  as  such  a 
likeness  survives,  the  man,  in  a  sense,  retains  his  hold  upon 
our  sympathies  and  his  place  among  the  living.  One  could 
almost  say  that  he  is  not  altogether  dead. 

All  portraiture  is  in  its  origin  funerary — that  is  to  sav, 
the  earliest  known  specimens  of  portraiture  are  found  in 
tombs,  and  represent  the  dead.  The  oldest  tombs,  I  need 
hardly  say,  are  the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt ;  and  the  oldest 
known  specimens  of  portraiture,  whether  in  sculpture  or 
painting,  represent  ancient  Egyptians. 

When  saying,  however,  that  all  portraiture  is  in  its  origin 
funerary,  I  must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  such  por- 
traiture is  of  a  memorial  character.  To  adorn  the  last  homes 
of  the  honored  dead  with  sculptured  effigies  seems  to  our- 
selves a  natural  expression  of  respect.  We  desire  that  their 
likenesses  as  well  as  their  memories  shall  be  handed  down  to 
posterity ;  and  we  even  derive  some  consolation  from  the 
knowledge  that  our  remote  descendants  will  know  them  as 
we  have  known  them.  But  the  ancient  Egyptians  buried 
their  funerary  effigies  in  the  darkness  and  secrecy  of  the 
tomb  itself.  No  people  were  so  lavish  of  statues,  of  statu- 
ettes, of  wall-sculptures  and  wall-paintings,  representing  the 
tenant  of  the  tomb,  his  wife,  and  his  family ;  yet  no  people 
were  ever  at  such  pains  to  hide  those  works  of  art  from  ev- 
ery eye.  In  the  oldest  time  of  all — that  is,  in  the  time  of 
the  First  Empire,  when  every  king  had  his  pyramid,  and 
every  great  man  his  stone-built  tomb — portrait-statues  were 
invariably  buried  with  the  dead.  Strange  as  this  custom 
seems,  it  is  not  half  so  strange  as  the  fact  that  the  Egyptians 
were  wont  to  bury,  not  one  statue,  but  several  statues,  all  of 
the  one  man  and  all  precisely  alike.  The  average  number  of 
portrait-statues  found  in  tombs  of  the  first  period  is  from 
three  to  seven ;  but  as  many  as  twenty  duplicate  statues  of 


110  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

heroic  size  have  actually  been  taken  from  a  single  tomb. 
Our  astonishment  culminates,  however,  when  we  learn  that 
a  hiding-place  without  inlet  or  outlet  was  constructed  for 
the  accommodation  of  these  statues  in  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  <  f  the  tomb.  Thus  they  were  doubly  buried,  in  a  se- 
pulchre within  a  sepulchre. 

Here,  no  matter  how  admirable  they  might  be  as  works  of 
art — and  some  are  indeed  admirable — they  were  immured,, 
as  it  was  hoped  and  intended,  forever.  The  National  Egyp- 
tian Museum  of  Ghizeh,  near  Cairo,  is  rich  in  statues  of  this 
class,  all  found  within  the  last  twenty-five  years,  and  all 
found  in  hiding-places  such  as  I  have  described.  The  tombs 
which  contain  these  recesses  are  peculiar  to  the  great  burial- 
fields  of  Ghizeh,  Sakkarah,  and  Meydum,  and  they  belong  to 
the  time  of  the  Pyramid  Kings  of  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth 
dynasties — that  is  to  say,  from  about  four  thousand  to  three 
thousand  five  hundred  years  before  our  era.  They  had  all 
been  plundered,  who  shall  say  how  many  centuries  before 
Mariette  and  Maspero  explored  them?  The  mummies  and 
their  funerary  belongings  had  long  since  been  scattered  to 
the  winds ;  but  the  statues,  secure  and  unsuspected,  yet  stood 
erect  inside  their  narrow  prisons.  And  they  are,  to  this 
day,  as  perfect,  and  the  colors  with  which  they  are  painted 
are  as  fresh,  as  if  they  had  left  the  hand  of  the  ancient  artist 
but  a  month  ago.(3') 

But  it  may  be  asked,  What  possessed  this  people  that  they 
should  produce  elaborate  works  of  art,  merely  to  hide  them 
forever  ?  "Why  not  have  erected  them  where  they  might  have 
been  seen  by  the  descendants  of  those  whom  they  commem- 
orated ?  The  answer,  however,  is  that  they  were  not  me- 
morial statues.  They  were  not  intended  to  "  commemorate  " 
the  dead,  as  our  dead  are  commemorated  in  modern  churches 
and  cemeteries.  The  ancient  Egyptians  were  actuated  by 
motives  altogether  different  from  our  motives— by  motives 
arising  out  of  one  of  the  most  curious  beliefs  which  ever  in- 
fluenced the  mind  of  man  at  any  period  in  the  history  of  re- 
ligious thought. 


THE  ORIGIN   OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  117 

If,  therefore,  we  are  rightly  to  apprehend  the  place  which 
ancient  Egyptian  portraiture  holds  in  relation  to  the  art  of 
portraiture  in  other  and  later  civilizations,  it  is  necessary 
that  we  should  know  what  that  belief  was,  and  in  what  way 
it  affected  the  actions  of  those  who  entertained  it. 

Man,  emerging  from  barbarism,  is  like  an  intelligent  child, 
full  of  curiosity  about  himself.  He  is  puzzled  by  the  mys- 
tery of  his  own  existence ;  and,  according  to  his  limited 
experience,  he  seeks  to  account  for  that  mystery.  Now,  the 
ancient  inhabitant  of  the  Nile  Valley  accounted  for  him- 
self in  a  very  elaborate  and  philosophical  fashion.  He  con- 
ceived of  man  as  a  composite  being,  consisting  of  at  least 
six  parts;  namely,  a  body,  "Khat";  a  soul,  "Ba";  an  in- 
telligence, "Khou";  a  shadow,  "Kha'ibit";  a  name,  "Ren"; 
and  another  element,  called  in  Egyptian  a  "  Ka."  To  these 
six  parts,  as  enumerated  by  Maspero,*  Dr.  "Wiedemann  adds 
two  more  —  the  heart,  "Ab,"  and  the  "  Sahu,"  which  has 
hitherto  been  translated  as  the  mummy,  but  is  now  defined 
by  Dr.  Wiedemann  f  as  "the  husk,"  which  is,  in  fact,  the 
same  thing;  a  mummy  from  which  all  the  internal  organs 
have  been  removed,  being  really  only  the  outer  shell  of  the 
man.  Now,  the  co-operation  of  these  several  parts  as  one 
harmonious  whole  constituted  the  living  man ;  but  they 
were  dissociated  by  death,  and  could  only  be  reunited  after 
a  long  probation.  When  so  reunited,  it  was  forever.  The 
man  attained  immortality,  and  became  as  one  of  the  gods. 
Meanwhile,  being  dead,  the  Body  lay  inert  in  the  depths  of 
the  tomb ;  the  Soul  performed  a  perilous  pilgrimage  through 
a  demon-haunted  Valley  of  Shades ;  the  Intelligence,  freed 
from  mortal  encumbrance,  wandered  through  space;  the 
Name,  the  Shadow,  and  the  Heart  awaited  the  arrival  of  the 

*  See  Maspero's  "Bulletin  Critique  de  la  Religion  Hjgyptienne," in  the  Re- 
vue de  VHistoire  des  Religions,  vol.  xiii.  f  Die  UnslerblichkeU  der  Secle  nach 
altayyptischer  Lehre. — Von  A.  Wiedemann. 

[The  Sahu,  considered  as  only  the  "husk, "may  from  this  point  of  view 
be  regarded  as  somewhat  differing  from  the  Khat,  or  body,  which  is  the 
whole  corporeal  being. — A.  B.  E.] 


118  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Soul  when  its  pilgrimage  should  be  accomplished ;  and  the 
Ka  dwelt  with  the  mummy  in  the  sepulchre. 

Xow,  the  Ka  is  a  very  interesting  personage.     He  is  desig- 
nated in  the  Egyptian  writing  by  a  special  hieroglyph  L     J 
representing  a  pair  of  hands  and  arms  upraised  as  if  in  [ 
adoration. 

Such  is  the  pictorial  symbol  of  which  the  phonetic  read- 
ing is  u/itf ."  This  name,  or  rather  the  conception  represented 
by  this  name,  has  been  variously  interpreted  by  European 
Egyptologists.  Dr.  Brugsch,  in  his  Hieroglyphic  Dictionary, 
explains  it  as  "the  person,  the  individuality,  the  being." 
Professor  Maspero,  recognizing  its  incorporeal  character, 
calls  it  "  the  double."  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf  (32)  likens  it  to  the 
"  eidolon  "  of  the  Greeks,  the  "  genius  "  of  the  Eomans ;  and 
Dr.  Wiedemann  has  lately  written  an  interesting  paper  to 
show  that  it  was  not  the  person,  but  what  he  calls  u  the  per- 
sonality "  or  "  individuality  "  of  the  deceased — meaning  there- 
by that  which  distinguished  him  in  life  from  other  men ;  in 
other  words,  the  mental  impression  which  was  evoked  when 
his  name  was  mentioned. 

Widely  as  these  definitions  differ,  their  authors  agree  as 
to  the  shadowy  nature  of  the  Ka  itself.  They  recognize 
that  it  was  a  Spectral  Something,  apart  from  the  man's 
body,  inseparable  from  him  during  life,  surviving  him  after 
death,  and  destined  to  be  reunited  to  him  hereafter.  So 
much  is  proved  by  a  multitude  of  inscriptions — chiefly  of  a 
funerary  character;  for,  although  the  Ka  occasionally  fig- 
ures in  historical  texts,  and  with  reference  to  living  persons, 
he  is  invariably  met  with  in  memorial  inscriptions,  from  the 
old  Pyramid  Period  down  to  the  comparatively  recent  time 
when  the  ancient  religion  was  superseded  by  Christianity. 
Throughout  that  long  time  (namely,  from  about  four  thou- 
sand years  before  Christ  to  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  I.,  three  hundred  and  seventy-nine  years  after 
Christ),  one  special  formula,  graven  on  funerary  tablets,  re- 
mained almost  word  for  word  the  same.  That  formula  was 
neither  more  nor  less  than  an  invocation  addressed  by  the 


THE   ORIGIN   OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  119 

deceased  to  all  who  might  visit  or  pass  by  his  tomb,  implor- 
ing them,  to  offer  up  a  prayer  on  his  account  to  Osiris,  the 
god  of  the  dead.  This  sounds  curiously  modern,  remind- 
ing us  of  a  similar  prayer  which  we  have  all  seen  many  a 
time  in  little  village  church-yards  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. The  resemblance,  however,  does  not  go  very  far. 

Jacques  Bonhomrae  petitions  you  to  say  a  Pater-noster  for 
the  repose  of  his  soul ;  but  the  ancient  Egyptian  appealed 
to  passers-by  on  behalf,  not  of  his  Soul,  which  was  perform- 
ing its  pilgrimage  in  Hades,  but  of  his  Ka,  which  was  the 
companion  of  his  mummy  in  the  tomb. 

And  what  may  we  suppose  he  wanted  for  his  Ka  ?  Peace, 
after  the  battle  of  life  ?  Loving  remembrance  on  the  part 
of  those  who  survived  him  ? 

Not  at  all.  His  supplication  was  of  a  far  more  material 
character.  It  was  literally  for  the  good  things  of  this  world 
— in  a  word,  for  what  is  expressively  termed  "  a  square  meal." 
Take,  for  example,  the  literal  translation  of  one  of  these 
post-mortem  petitions  from  the  funerary  tablet  of  one  Pepi- 
Na,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty,  some 
three  thousand  five  hundred  years  before  our  era. 

FUNERARY    TABLET    OF    PEPI-NA.  (  S3  ) 

(Sixth  Dynasty.) 

"  O  ye  who  live  upon  the  earth ! 
Ye  who  come  hither  and  are  servants  of  the  Gods ! 

Oh,  say  these  words  : 

"  Grant  thousands  of  loaves,  thousands  of  jars  of  wine,  thousands 
of  jars  of  beer,  thousands  of  beeves,  thousands  of  geese,  to  the  Ka  of 
the  Royal  Friend  Pepi-Na,  Superintendent  of  the  Royal  Household, 
and  Superior  of  the  Priests  of  the  Pyramid  of  King  Pepi !" 

This  is  a  very  early  specimen.  "We  will  now  take  a  great 
leap  of  nearly  three  thousand  years,  to  the  Sa'ite  Period— 
the  period  of  Psammetichus  and  his  dynasty— and  turn  to 
the  tablet  of  one  Napu,  a  priest  of  Thebes  who  lived  and 
died  about  two  thousand  four  hundred  years  ago. 


120  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

FUNERARY  TABLET  OF  NAPU.  (") 

(Twenty -sixth  Dynasty.) 

Adoration  to  Osiris, 

The  Great  God, 

Lord  of  Abydos ! 

"  May  he  grant  sepulchral  meals,  beeves,  geese,  burnt  incense,  wine, 
beer,  linen  vestments,  vegetables,  and  all  good,  pure,  and  sweet  things 
to  the  Ka  of  the  Holy  Priest  of  Maut,  Napu,  Son  of  the  Holy  Priest 
of  Maut,  Asi,  and  of  the  Lady  Mautemhatmest." 

To  multiply  examples  would  be  easy.  Such  funerary  tab- 
lets are  accumulated  by  hundreds  in  European  museums. 
Some  are  elaborately  carved  in  granite  and  basalt ;  some 
are  painted  on  panels  of  acacia-wood.  Some  are  from  five  to 
seven  feet  in  height ;  others  are  about  the  size  of  an  ordina- 
ry octavo  volume.  Fe\v  travellers  come  back  from  Egypt 
without  one  of  these  smaller  tablets,  and  few  private  collec- 
tions are  without  a  specimen.  But  from  the  earliest  to  the 
latest,  in  the  largest  as  well  as  in  the  smallest,  the  one  most 
remarkable  feature  of  the  formula  is  the  voracious  appetite 
of  the  Ka.  He  is  invariably  clamoring  for  "beeves  and 
geese,  wine  and  beer,"  fruits,  bread,  and  the  like.  And  the 
proportions  of  his  bill  of  fare  put  the  most  stupendous  of 
civic  banquets  to  shame.  He  asks  for  "thousands"  of  all 
these  good  things.  An  ox  roasted  whole  would  be  of  no 
more  account  to  him  than  a  beef -lozenge  to  an  alderman. 
And  it  is  yet  more  extraordinary  that  the  Ka  actually  got 
what  he  asked  for;  though  not,  perhaps,  to  the  full  extent 
of  his  demands.  The  four  oxen  who  dragged  the  funeral 
sledge  to  the  tomb  on  the  day  of  burial  were  slaughtered 
and  cut  up  on  the  spot ;  gazelles  and  geese  were  also  slain ; 
and  these,  together  with  great  sheaves  of  onions  and  cucum- 
bers, and  basket-loads  of  bread,  corn,  dates,  nuts,  and  other 
eatables,  as  well  as  a  number  of  large  jars  filled  with  wine, 
milk,  water,  and  barley  beer,  were  deposited  in  the  sepul- 
chral chamber,  and  there  walled  up  with  the  mummy. 

Now  this,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  was  not  by  way  of  a 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


121 


sacrifice  to  the  gods,  nor  yet  for  the  benefit  of  the  mummy. 
It  was  for  the  sustenance  of  the  Ka,  The  mummy,  in  fact, 
is  a  very  secondary  personage  in  comparison  with  the  Ka. 
The  tomb  itself  is  called  the  "House  of  the  Ka"— not  the 
house  of  the  mummy.  The  food-offerings  thus  buried  were 


FUNERARY    OFFERINGS. 

From  a  tomb  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty. 


not  supposed,  however,  to  last  the  Ka  for  very  long.  They 
had  to  be  periodically  renewed.  This  was  sometimes  done 
by  the  descendants  of  the  dead,  who  at  stated  dates  deposit- 
ed food  and  drink  in  the  votive  chapel  attached  to  the  tomb. 
But  the  wealthy  Egyptian  more  commonly  provided  for  the 
future  of  his  Ka  by  bequeathing  a  portion  of  his  estate  to 
the  priesthood,  in  prepayment  for  sepulchral  meals  in  per- 
petuity. There  are  inscriptions  in  the  Museum  of  Naples, 
and  in  the  Louvre,  which  prove  that  these  endowed  offerings 
were  kept  up  for  many  centuries. 

Supposing,  however,  that  unforeseen  circumstances  caused 
the  endowment  to  lapse,  the  Ka  had  still  a  last  resource  in 
the  piety  of  strangers.  Such  was  the  magical  power  of  the 
formula  engraved  upon  his  funerary  tablet  that  its  mere 
repetition  by  a  passer-by  sufficed  to  insure  a  supply  of  ideal 
beeves  and  geese,  ideal  jars  of  wine  and  beer,  ideal  onions 
and  cucumbers  for  the  nourishment  of  the  hungry  Ka.  By 
simply  reading  aloud  the  invocations  of  Pepi-lSa  and  Xapu 


122  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

we  may  therefore  at  any  moment  replenish  the  larders  of 
that  worthy  pair — a  piece  of  good-fortune  which  has  proba- 
bly not  befallen  either  of  them  for  a  considerable  time. 

And  now  a  very  curious  question  suggests  itself,  namely, 
\vhv  should  the  immaterial  Ka  stand  in  need  of  material 
meats  and  drinks  ?  It  may,  perhaps,  be  asked  in  return  what 
that  question  has  to  do  with  the  subject  of  ancient  Egyptian 
portraiture  ? 

It  has  everything  to  do  with  it.  It  has  to  do  with  the 
portrait-statues  immured  in  the  walls  of  the  tomb.  It  has 
to  do  with  the  portraits  sculptured  in  bas-relief,  or  painted  in 
distemper,  on  the  inner  chambers  and  passages  of  the  tomb. 
It  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole  history  of  portraiture. 

Those  statues  and  paintings,  as  it  has  already  been  said, 
were  not  memorial.  When  once  the  tomb  was  closed,  they 
were  never  again  to  be  seen  by  mortal  eyes.  With  what 
object,  then,  were  they  fashioned  ? 

They  were  fashioned  for  the  purpose  of  providing  an  ar- 
tificial body  for  the  Ka. 

Opinions  may  differ  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Ka  itself — one 
regarding  it  as  a  ghost,  another  as  a  double,  another  as 
an  ''eidolon"  or  genius ;  but  no  Egyptologist  doubts  that  all 
forms  of  portraiture  in  ancient  Egypt  were  funerary,  or 
that  they  were  Expressly  designed  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  Ka. 

The  Ka  and  the  Body  were  inseparable  till  death  dis- 
solved their  partnership.  Once  dead  and  mummified,  the 
body  was  exposed  to  many  dangers.  The  tomb  might  be 
broken  open ;  the  mummy  might  be  burned,  and  scattered 
to  the  four  winds  of  heaven ;  but  so  long  as  the  statues  re- 
mained intact  in  their  hiding-places — so  long  as  the  painted 
portraits  on  the  walls  were  not  utterly  defaced — the  Ka  had 
still  a  body  to  depend  upon.  Professor  Maspero,  conceiving 
of  the  Ka  as  a  "  double,"  supposed  this  double  to  need  a  ma- 
terial support  on  wrhich  to  extend  itself — as  a  glove,  for  in- 
stance, is  extended  on  a  wooden  hand  in  a  glove -maker's 
shop.  But  I  have  recently  ventured  to  suggest  another 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  123 

explanation  of  the  nature  of  the  Ka,  which  seems  to  me  not 
only  more  satisfactory  from  a  metaphysical  point  of  view, 
but  which  also  places  in  our  hands  a  key  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  many  texts  which  till  now  have  been  hopelessly 
obscure. 

I  believe  that  the  Ka  stood,  not  for  the  genius  or  double, 
but  for  the  life — in  other  words,  for  the  vital  principle.  I 
have  been  led  to  this  conclusion  by  the  evidence  of  certain 
sculptures  and  inscriptions  of  which  the  exact  sense  seems, 
from  my  point  of  view,  to  have  escaped  observation.  If, 
however,  the  nature  of  this  evidence  is  to  be  explained,  no 
matter  how  popularly  and  briefly,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
enter  into  a  few  preliminary  details. 

I  must  first  point  out  that  every  reigning  Pharaoh  had 
three  names:  (1)  his  personal,  or  family  name,  being  the 
same  by  which  he  was  known  when  but  a  prince;  (2)  his 
"throne-name,"  or  "solar-name,"  assumed  on  his  accession, 
and  indicating  his  divine  descent  from  the  god  Ka ;  (3)  his 
"banner-name,"  or  "standard-name,"  so  called  because  en- 
closed in  an  upright  rectangular  frame,  like  a  banner,  deco- 
rated with  a  margin  of  vertical  strokes  at  the  lower  end, 
somewhat  resembling  a  fringe.  Now,  Mr.  Petrie*  has  re- 
cently shown  that  this  misnamed  "standard"  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  an  abridged  representation  of  the  "  false  door" 
of  a  tomb— such  a  door  as  was  sculptured,  or  painted,  on  the 
walls  of  the  upper  chamber  in  which  funerary  food-offerings 
were  deposited.  These  fictitious  doors  were  supposed  to 
lead  to  the  equally  fictitious  apartment  of  the  Ka ;  and  it 
was  through  them  that  he  passed  to  and  fro  to  feed  upon 
the  "beeves  and  geese"  and  other  good  things  provided  for 
his  sustenance,  f  Mr.  Petrie  has  conclusively  demonstrated 
the  accuracy  of  his  interpretation  by  numerous  examples 
from  monuments  of  all  periods,  some  of  these  "  standards  " 
actually  showing  the  hinges,  bolts,  and  bars  of  the  imitation 

*  A  Season  in.  Egypt.    By  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie.    Chap.  iv.     1888. 
f  See  Egyptian  ArcJueology.    By  G.  Maspero.    Chap,  iii.,  p.  125.    1880. 


1-24:  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

door.  The  so-called  "  standard  "  being  the  abridged  repre- 
sentation of  the  door  supposed  to  give  access  to  the  imagi- 
nary chamber  of  the  Ka,  Mr.  Petrie  was  at  once  led  to  the 
further  discovery  that  the  standard-name  was  in  reality  the 
Ka-name  of  the  King.  Hence  it  followed  that  each  sov- 
ereign, on  succeeding  to  the  throne,  not  only  assumed  a 
throne-name,  but  took  also  a  name  for  his  Ka.  The  throne- 
name  was  enclosed  in  a  royal  oval,  or  cartouche,  like  the 
familv-name;  but  the  Ka-name  was  represented  as  if  in- 
scribed above  the  false  door-way,  just  where  the  name  of  a 
deceased  person  would  be  inscribed  above  the  actual  door 
of  his  sepulchre.  It  may  seem  strange,  perhaps,  that  a  liv- 
ing Pharaoh  should  emblazon  part  of  the  decoration  of  his 
tomb  among  the  insignia  of  his  royalty;  but  that  tomb,  it 
is  to  be  remembered,  was  the  destined  abode,  not  only  of 
his  mummy,  but  of  his  Ka.  Consequently,  no  better  device 
could  be  employed  by  way  of  substitute  for  a  royal  oval  than 
the  rectangular  framework  enclosing  a  representation  of  the 
false  door  inscribed  with  the  Ka-name.  The  tomb  itself,  as 
already  stated,  is  known  in  funerary  texts  as  the  "  House  of 
the  Ka";  and  as  each  king  on  his  accession  began  imme- 
diately to  build  his  pyramid  or  excavate  his  rock-cut  sepul- 
chre, it  followed  that  he  was  as  much  interested  in  providing 
for  the  future  accommodation  of  his  Ka  as  in  providing  for 
the  future  accommodation  of  his  mummy.  Many  texts  point, 
however,  to  the  fact  that  Ka-houses  were  erected  by  the 
Egyptians  for  the  worship  and  service  of  their  Kas,  inde- 
pendently of  their  tombs  ;*  so  that,  after  all,  the  false  door 
represented  in  a  royal  Ka-name  may  as  probably  stand  for 
the  false  door  of  a  Ka-chamber  in  a  royal  votive  chapel, 
as  for  the  false  door  of  a  Ka-chamber  in  the  sepulchre.  It 
would  seem,  from  the  absence  of  any  record  to  the  contrary, 
that  the  Kas  of  private  persons  were  either  nameless,  or  called 
by  the  names  of  those  persons ;  and  that  the  King  alone  was 

*  Knumhotep,  in  the  great  Bern-Hassan  inscription,  states  that  he  built 
chapels  for  the  Ka  of  his  father. 


THE  ORIGIN   OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  125 

entitled  to  a  special  and  separate  name  for  his  Ka.  Some 
Pharaohs,  indeed,  took  more  than  one  Ka-name,  Amenho- 
tep  III.  indulging  in  no  less  than  seven. 

JSTow,  as  I  have  already  said,  the  Ka  occasionally  figures 
in  historical  texts,  and  with  reference  to  living  persons.  This 
is  especially  true  of  royal  persons,  the  King  or  Queen  beino- 
frequently  represented  as  attended  by  his  or  her  Ka,  which 
is  sometimes  shown  as  a  duplicate,  or  alter  ego,  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  sometimes  as  a  male  figure  with  the  Ka-arms, 
and  Ka-name  on  its  head.  In  the  Museum  of  Leyden,  for 
instance,  there  is  a  group  of  three  figures,  representing  Queen 
Mertetefs,*  her  Ka,  and  her  secretary,  the  Queen  and  her 
Ka  being  in  all  respects  duplicate  statues.  At  Dayr  el-Ba- 
hari,  on  the  other  hand,  Queen  Hatasuf  is  shown  in  Phar- 
aonic  costume,  her  Ka  standing  behind  her  in  the  guise  of 
a  small  bearded  man  crowned  with  the  Ka-arms  and  Ka- 
name  of  the  Queen.  He  grasps  the  aiikh  and  feather  of 
Ma  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  human-headed  staff  in  his  left. 
The  features  of  the  Ka,  and  of  the  head  upon  his  staff,  are 
identical  with  the  features  of  the  Queen.  In  a  very  curious 
series  of  tableaux  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  one  of  the  inner 
halls  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Luxor,  we  find,  however,  the 
most  interesting  and  instructive  of  all  these  royal  Ka  sub- 
jects. They  relate  to  the  birth  and  bringing-up  of  Amen- 
hotep  III.,  the  founder  of  the  temple,  and  they  date,  conse- 
quently, from  the  latter  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  In 
the  first  of  these  bas-reliefs  we  see  the  Queen-mother  Maute- 
mua  kneeling  on  a  kind  of  dais,  having  just  given  birth  to 
the  royal  infant.  Hathor  kneels  facing  her,  with  the  babe 
in  her  arms,  and  a  second  Ilathor,  with  a  second  babe  in 
her  arms,  kneels  behind  the  first.  This  second  babe  is  the 
Ka  of  the  first  babe.  Over  the  head  of  the  first  (the  actual 

*  A  queen  of  the  Third  and  Fourth  dynasties.  She  was  wife  of  Sene- 
feru,  the  last  king  of  the  Third  Dynasty,  and  wife  of  Khufu  (Cheops),  the 
first  king  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  builder  of  the  Great  Pyramid. 

f  See  Mariette's  Delr  el-Bahari.  Plate  6.  The  details  of  the  false  door 
are,  however,  omitted  in  Mariette's  plate. 


126  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Amenhotep)  are  engraved  his  two  royal  ovals,  while  the 
space  above  the  head  of  the  infant-Ka  is  left  vacant.  Most 
curious  of  all,  however,  is  the  Ka  of  the  Queen-mother,  rep- 
resented as  a  kneeling  female  figure  with  the  Ka-arms  on 
its  head;  while  from  each  of  these  Ka-arms  is  suspended 
an  ankh,  or  symbol  of  life.  The  meaning  here  is  obvious. 
The  child  is  but  just  born,  and  the  maternal  Ka  presides 
over  the  lives  of  both  mother  and  child.  Below  the  dais 
we  see  the  child  Amenhotep  and  the  child-Ka,  both  in  the 
act  of  being  suckled  by  Ilathor,  in  the  shape  of  the  divine 
cow.* 

In  the  next  subject,  the  two  Hathors  present  the  two  chil- 
dren to  the  goddess  Safekh,  the  patron  deity  of  libraries, 
who  dips  her  reed-pen  in  an  inkpot,  preparatory  to  record- 
ing the  name  of  the  Ka- infant  in  the  royal  archives;  the 
names  of  the  actual  prince  being  already  inscribed  above  his 
head  in  two  ovals.  The  Ka- child,  meanwhile,  carries  his 
name-frame  on  his  head,  but  the  field  is  vacant,  f  Lastly, 
the  child -prince  and  the  child-Ka  are  presented  by  Ra  to 
Amen-Ra,  the  great  god  of  Thebes ;  while  behind  Ra  stands 
the  god  Nilus,  also  carving  the  child-prince  and  the  child-Ka, 
the  former  with  his  two  royal  ovals  above  his  head,  and 
the  latter  crowned  with  the  Ka-stand  and  Ka-name.  Be- 
hind this  Nilus  advances  yet  another  ISTilus,  carrying  three 
"ankhs"  tied  together  in  his  right  hand — an  "ankh,"  evi- 
dently, for  each  of  the  royal  names,  i.e.,  the  family-name, 
throne-name,  and  Ka-name  of  the  infant  Amenhotep.:]; 

Now,  in  these  tableaux  it  is  to  be  observed  that  there  is  a 
close  and  significant  association  of  the  Ka  with  the  "  ankh ;" 
the  "  ankh "  figured  thus,  O  ,  being  the  current  hieroglyph 
for  "life." 

If  we  next  turn  to  the  storied  walls  of  the  Great  Temple 
of  Karnak,  and  examine  some  of  the  famous  battle-pieces 
illustrating  the  career  of  Seti  L,  about  a  century  later,  we 

*  See  Rossellini,  Monumenti  Storici.    Plate  xxxviii. 
t  Idem.     Plate  xxxix.  t  Idem. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  127 

find  this  connection  between  the  Ka  and  the  ankh  yet  more 
distinctly  emphasized. 

In  these  elaborate  chronicles  in  stone,  we  see  the  hero  at- 
tacking fortresses,  charging  the  enemy,  trampling  the  van- 
quished under  his  chariot- wheels,  and  slaughtering  all  before 
him.  The  goddess  Maut,  in  the  form  of  a  vulture,  and  the 
"hut,"  or  disk  of  Horus,  hover  above  his  head;  Avhile  be- 
hind him,  floating  apparently  in  mid-air,  we  see 
the  "ankh"  and  Ka  conjoined,  the  Ka-arms 
grasping  a  lotus-staff  surmount- 
ed by  an  ostrich  feather.*  In 
some  scenes,  the  united  "ankh" 
and  Ka  become  the  head  and 
arms  of  a  tiny  figure  which  holds  n) 

a  parasol  or  feather -fan  out- 
stretched  towards  the  King.f 
Now,  the  "  hut "  (which  is  the 
sun-disk  flanked  on  either  side 
by  the  uraBi,  or  royal  basilisks)  is 
the  emblem  of  Horus  the  Victor, 
and  it  symbolizes  the  triumph 
of  the  King;  while  Maut,  the 

mother  -  goddess,  protects  the  royal  warrior  with  her  out- 
spread wings.  What,  then,  is  the  meaning  of  the  fantastic 
little  figure  which  waves  a  feather-fan,  or  holds  a  parasol? 
As  I  take  it,  the  meaning  is  very  obvious. 

The  Ka  no  longer  carries  the  "ankh,"  as  before,  but  is 
identified  and  made  one  with  it,  thus  standing  for  the  life  of 
the  King.  The  flabellum  or  parasol,  frequently  represented  as 
carried  over  the  King's  head  in  processional  subjects,  is  not 
only  used  in  religious  texts  to  symbolize  the  Shade  or  Shad- 
ow $  (one  of  the  essential  and  immortal  parts  of  the  man), 

*  Rossellini,  Monumenti  Storici.     Plate  xlviii. 

f  Idem.     Plates  liv.  and  Iv. 

\  "On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead."  By  S.  Birch,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
etc.  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology.  Vol.  viii.  Part  3. 
1885. 


128  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

but  it  also  signifies  protection,  defence,  shelter,  etc.*  Held 
thus  in  the  arms  of  the  Ka,  it  means  protection  to  his  life 
in  the  peril  of  battle— such  protection  as  is  also  symbolized 
by  the  out-spread  wings  of  the  vulture-goddess  above. 

There  is  yet  another  class  of  monuments,  connected  with 
neither  birth  nor  peril  of  death,  in  which  the  Ka  figures 
very  conspicuously ;  namely,  in  scenes  of  worship.  In  these, 
the  Ka  appears  as  if  in  attendance  upon  the  King,  and  al- 
ways with  the  'vankh"  in  one  or  both  hands.  Also — and  this 
is  a  point  of  great  importance — he  has  generally  a  short  in- 
scription over  his  head.  In  this  inscription  he  is  expressly 
designated  as  "  Suten  Ka,  Ankh  Neb  Taui ;"  *.  e.,  "  Eoyal  Ka, 
Life  [of  the]  Lord  of  the  Two  Lands" — an  inscription  of 
which  the  meaning  is  absolutely  clear,  and  which  is  of  itself, 
I  venture  to  think,  a  positive  testimony  to  the  correctness  of 
my  interpretation.  Thus,  in  a  bas-relief  group  in  the  Great 
Temple  of  Luxor,  f  Amenhotep  III.,  followed  by  his  Ka,  is 
depicted  in  the  act  of  advancing  towards  the  god  Khem 
with  a  libation-vase  in  each  hand,  his  Ka  standing  behind 
him  in  human  form,  with  the  Ka-name  on  his  head,  sur- 
mounted by  the  pschent-crowned  hawk,  emblem  of  Horus. 
The  Ka-figure  carries  the  "ankh"  in  one  hand,  and  in  the 
other,  the  customary  staff  terminating  in  a  bust  of  the  King. 
Over  his  head  is  graven  the  above-named  formula :  "  The 
Royal  Ka,  Life  of  the  Lord  of  the  Two  Lands."  So  also  at 
Dayr  el-Bahari,  the  Ka-figure  standing  behind  Queen  Hat- 
asu  $  bears  the  Ka-name  on  his  head,  the  "  ankh  "  in  his  right 
hand,  and  the  staff  surmounted  by  the  royal  bust  in  his  left 
hand.  Above  him  is  engraved  the  self -same  inscription: 
"  The  Eoyal  Ka,  Life  of  the  Lord  of  the  Two  Lands." 

In  addition  to  this  close  and  invariable  association  of  the 
Ka  and  the  "  ankh,"  there  is  yet  another  corroborative  point 
to  be  noted,  namely,  the  persistent  recurrence  of  the  bull 


*  S.  Lcvi,  Vocabolario  Geroglifico.     Vol.  vi.,  p.  141. 

f  Rosselliui,  Monumenti  Storici.     Plate  cli. 

\  De'lr  el-Baliari.     Par  Mariettc-Bey.     Planche  7. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  129 

(also  called  Ka,  and  expressive  of  vital  energy)  in  royal  Ka- 
names,  beginning  with  the  Ka-name  of  Thothmes  I.,  and 
continuing  to  be  incorporated  in  the  Ka-name  of  almost  ev- 
ery succeeding  Pharaoh  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth 
dynasties.* 

The  evidence  is  abundant  and  uniform.  The  Ka- figure 
always  carries  the  "  ankh ;"  the  bull  (Ka)  figures  significant- 
ly in  a  large  number  of  royal  Ka-names ;  and  the  Ka-figure 
in  the  titular  inscription  by  which  it  is  invariably  accompa- 
nied, is  expressly  defined  as  the  "life"  of  the  King.  The 
words  of  this  inscription  are  of  elementary  simplicity,  and 
admit  of  no  other  interpretation. 

It  is  for  these  reasons — supported  by  many  more  illustra- 
tions than  can  be  crowded  into  this  volume — that  I  have 
ventured  to  define  the  Ka  as  the  life,  or  vital  principle.  In 
other  words,  I  mean  that  transmitted  energy  which  must  un- 
doubtedly have  descended  from  the  primal  source  of  life  to 
all  who  live,  or  have  lived,  upon  earth. 

Seeing  how  subtly  the  ancient  Egyptians  resolved  the 
living  man  into  what  may  be  called  his  constituent  parts,  it 
would  be  strange  if  they  had  omitted  that  informing  princi- 
ple which  alone  makes  of  those  constituent  parts  a  co-ordi- 
nate whole.  And  if  the  Ka  is  not  the  life,  then  the  Egyp- 
tians altogether  omitted  the  life  from  their  careful  analysis, 
which  is  inconceivable. 


*  ' '  Life,"  as  the  translation  of  Ka,  makes  sense  of  a  passage  in  The  Book  of 
the  Dead  (chap,  xxx.),  the  ohscurity  of  which  was  long  since  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf.  The  deceased,  addressing  the  heart-scarab,  says,  "  En- 
tuk  Ka  em  Khat-a,"  which  is  currently  rendered  by,  "Thou  art  a  Ka  in  my 
body" — a  phrase  devoid  of  meaning  if  Ka  be  translated  as  "double"  or 
"genius,"  but  which  is  perfectly  intelligible  if  read  as,  "Thou  art  life  in 
my  body,"  the  heart  being  the  most  essentially  vital  of  organs,  and  the 
heart-scarab  being  placed  inside  the  chest  of  the  mummy  as  a  substitute  for 
the  actual  heart.  This  scarab  is  invariably  engraved  with  a  special  for- 
mula (chap,  xxx.,  Book  of  the  Dead)  beginning,  "Oh,  my  heart,  which 
came  to  me  from  my  mother  !  my  heart,  which  was  mine  upon  earth,"  etc. 
The  transmission  of  the  life  from  mother  to  child  points  clearly  to  the  true 
meaning  of  the  above  phrase,  "Enluk  Ka  em  Khat-a." 
9 


130  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

It  has,  however,  been  said,  and  with  truth,  by  Dr.  Wiede- 
mann  that  the  ancient  Egyptian  was  incapable  of  conceiv- 
ing abstract  ideas ;  hence  it  follows  that  he  necessarily  con- 
ceived of  vitality  as  a  separate  entity.  We  ourselves  speak 
figuratively  of  the  life  as  "  going  out  of  the  body  "  at  the 
moment  of  death  ;  but  the  Egyptians  believed  not  only  that 
it  went  out,  but  that  it  thenceforth  led  an  independent  exist- 
ence. They  knew  that  the  living  man  nourished  his  life — 
his  Ka — with  meats  and  drinks;  and  they  naturally  and 
naively  concluded,  from  their  concrete  point  of  view,  that 
meats  and  drinks  were  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  Ka 
when  its  partnership  with  the  body  should  be  dissolved.  It 
was,  in  fact,  because  the  Ka  was  the  life  that  it  required 
nourishment ;  and  because  it  was  of  divine  origin  that  it  sur- 
vived the  death  of  the  body.  The  starvation  of  the  Ka  was 
therefore  a  more  grievous  calamity  than  the  destruction  of 
the  body.  The  body  could  be  replaced  by  a  statue,  or  even 
by  a  painting ;  but  the  extinction  of  the  Ka  meant  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  divine  spark — the  annihilation  of  the  dead 
man's  prospects  of  ultimate  reunion  with  his  Ka.  In  a  word, 
it  meant  the  loss  of  immortality. 

Translate  Ka,  then,  as  "  life,"  and  the  Ka-statue  becomes 
more  intelligible  than  heretofore.  The  life  needed  a  body 
in  which  to  abide,  just  as  it  needed  bread,  meats,  fruit, 
wine,  and  milk  for  its  sustenance.  The  Ka  informed  the 
statue,  dwelt  within  it,  felt  through  it,  just  as  the  life  in- 
forms, dwells  in,  and  feels  through  the  living  body.  Lack- 
ing funerary  offerings,  it  suffered  all  the  pangs  of  starva- 
tion ;  and  it  was  to  guard  against  this  dreaded  possibility 
that  the  Egyptians  provided  for  its  material  nourishment  by 
means  of  pious  foundations  in  perpetuity. 

The  astonishing  way  in  which  these  foundations  were 
maintained  from  age  to  age,  from  dynasty  to  dynasty,  is 
proved  by  the  funerary  inscriptions  of  priestly  personages 
who  officiated  for  kings  of  by -gone  periods.  The  Muse- 
um of  the  Louvre,  for  instance,  contains  the  tablet  of  one 
Psammetichus  of  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  who  flourished 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  131 

about  600  B.C.,  and  held  the  office  of  Priest  of  Khufu,  the 
builder  of  the  Great  Pyramid;  Khufu  having  reigned  and 
died  at  least  two  thousand  six  hundred  years  before. 

Now,  it  is  a  most  remarkable  and  interesting  truth  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians  were  the  first,  the  very  first,  people 
of  antiquity  who  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
That  is  a  cardinal  fact  which  we  must  never  omit  to  place 
to  their  credit.  But  they  believed  also  in  the  immortality 
of  the  rest  of  the  man  —  in  the  literal  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  in  the  ultimate  reunion  of  Body,  Soul,  Intelli- 
gence, Name,  Shadow,  and  Ka  —  which  last  I  venture  to 
call  the  Life.  What  they  conceived  the  life  to  be,  I  can- 
not say. 

We  ourselves,  with  all  our  science,  have  never  yet  solved 
the  physical  problem  of  vitality.  The  Greeks  conceived  of  it 
as  a  spark  of  divine  fire,  stolen  by  Prometheus  from  heaven. 
Probably  the  Egyptians  believed  it  to  be  an  emanation  from 
Ra,  the  great  solar  god,  from  whom  their  Pharaohs  claimed 
direct  descent.  It  may  be  that  the  Greeks  borrowed  this 
"  vital  spark,"  as  they  borrowed  so  much  else,  from  the  Egyp- 
tians; and  I  do  not  doubt  that  the  Hebrews — who  carried 
away  even  more  intellectual  spoils  than  spoil  of  silver  and 
gold  and  raiment  out  of  the  Land  of  Bondage — wrere  indebt- 
ed to  their  taskmasters  for  their  doctrine  of  the  "Khai." 
or  life.  They  in  fact  borrowed  not  only  the  notion  but 
the  word,  for  "  Kha "  and  "  Khai "  are  surely  one  and  the 
same. 

One  of  the  most  solemn  judicial  oaths  which  an  Egyptian 
could  take  was  by  the  Ka  of  the  Pharaoh  ;  and  to  take  that 
oath  lightly  was  punishable  by  death.  Seeing  that  the  Ka 
was  the  life,  and  that  the  King's  life  was  from  Ra,  the 
greatest  of  the  solar  gods,  the  tremendous  character  of  this 
oath  is  easily  understood.  It  was  in  this  sense,  and  the 
more  to  impress  his  brethren  with  the  extent  of  his  power, 
that  Joseph  twice  invoked  the  life  of  the  King  his  master ; 
and  for  my  own  part,  I  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  that 
what  he  actually  said  was,  "  By  the  Ka  of  Pharaoh,  surely 


132 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


re  are  spies  !"*  If  I  appear  to  dwell  at  too  much  length  upon 
this  sermon  on  the  text  of  the  Ka,  I  at  all  events  hope  to  show 
that  it  explains  much  which  would  otherwise  be  inexplicable 
in  the  origin  of  the  art  of  portraiture.  It  explains,  for  in- 
stance, the  reason  why  Egyptian  portrait  sculpture  differs  in 
its  primary  conception  from  the  portrait  sculpture  of  all  other 
nations.  Elsewhere,  men  began  by  making  images  of  their 
gods  that  they  might  fall  down  and  worship  them.  The 
earliest  works  of  Chaldean  and  Assyrian  art  represent  deities 
and  demons.  The  archaic  sculptors  of  Phoenicia,  Cyprus, 
and  Greece  first  tried  their  'prentice  hands  on  gods,  demi- 
gods and  deified  heroes.  But  the  fine  art  of  the  first  pe- 
riod of  Egyptian  history— 
the  period  of  the  Pyramid 
Kings — is  exclusively  fune- 
rary ;  and  it  reproduces, 
with  extraordinary  fidelity, 
the  men  and  women  of  that 
age. 

In  order  that  the  Ka 
should  feel  at  home  in  his 
new  body  of  stone  or  wood, 
the  statue  was  bound  to  be 
as  exactly  like  the  man  as 
the  sculptor's  art  could  make 
it.  If  the  man  was  ugly, the 
statue  must  also  be  ugly. 
If  he  had  any  personal  de- 
fect, the  statue  must  faith- 
fully reproduce  it;  as,  for 

"  Send  one  of  you,  and  let  him 
fetcli  your  brother,  and  ye  shall  be 
kept  in  prison,  that  your  words  may 
be  proved,  whether  there  be  any 
truth  in  you:  or  else  by  the  life  of 
Pharaoh  surely  ye  are  spies."— 
Genesis, xlii.,  1G.  See  also  verse  15. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  133 

instance,  in  this  funerary  statue  of  Nemhotep,  a  deformed 
dwarf  who  held  a  high  office  at  court  under  a  Pharaoh  of 
the  Sixth  Dynasty.  The  sculptor  of  a  Ka-statue  dared  not 
flatter.  He  might  not  model  the  best  side  of  the  sitter's 
face,  and  then  make  the  other  side  to  match  it,  like  our  fash- 
ionable artists.  That  is  not  nature's  way  of  working.  Put 
the  loveliest  woman  in  the  world  before  a  looking-glass,  peep 
over  her  shoulder,  and  you  will  see  that  one  eye  is  larger  than 
the  other ;  or  that  her  nose,  or  her  mouth,  is  a  little  to  one 
side.  Our  powers  of  observation  are,  however,  so  blunted, 
that  without  the  looking-glass  we  should  not  find  this  out. 
But  those  old  Egyptian  artists  lived  while  the  world  was  yet 
young.  Their  eyes  were  not  vitiated  by  custom,  and  their 
sitters  (actuated  by  a  motive  in  which  personal  vanity  had 
no  part)  were  not  anxious  to  be  flattered.  The  welfare  of 
the  Ka  was  at  stake ;  and  the  portrait  was  destined,  not  for 
the  annual  exhibition  of  a  Memphite  Royal  Academy,  but 
for  the  tomb. 

That  these  early  funerary  portrait -statues  were  studied 
from  the  life,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  technical  treatment 
proves  that  point.  And  it  is  this  certainty — the  certainty 
that  the  living  man  sat  to  the  artist  for  his  likeness — which 
makes  the  unique  value  of  the  early  Memphite  school. 
Later  on,  when  Asiatic  influences  were  at  work  in  Egypt,  an 
element  of  Asiatic  conventionality  makes  itself  felt  in  Egyp- 
tian portraiture.  But  the  singular  skill  with  which  Egyp- 
tian artists  of  all  periods  seized  upon,  and  reproduced,  the 
ethnic  types  of  foreign  races  has  never  been  surpassed.  It 
shows  that  however  they  may  have  been  influenced  by  fash- 
ion in  their  treatment  of  historical  portraiture,  their  power 
of  literal  portraiture  remained  unimpaired. 

The  leading  schools  of  Egyptian  art  are  classified  under 
the  heads  of  either  dynasties  or  capitals,  a  change  of  dynas- 
ty generally  involving  a  change  of  capital.  It  thus  followed 
that  Memphis  was  at  one  time  the  centre  of  government; 
at  another  time  Tanis ;  at  another  time  Thebes,  Bubastis, 
and  so  on.  Thus  we  have  the  Memphite  school  of  art, 


134  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

which  was  the  earliest;  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  school,  the 
Theban  school,  the  Saite  school,  and  some  minor  schools  of 
less  note.  The  rise  and  fall  of  these  various  schools  mark 
a  succession  of  decadences  and  renaissances  of  art,  each 
renaissance  being  distinguished  by  its  own  special  charac- 
teristics. All  these  schools,  all  these  renaissances,  had,  nev- 
ertheless, one  essential  principle  in  common :  they  were 
primarily  exponents  of  the  religious  idea.  In  the  hands  of 
the  sculptor  and  the  painter,  the  gods  were  made  manifest 
to  the  eyes  of  their  worshippers ;  the  terrors  of  Hades  and 
the  delights  of  Elysium  were  depicted  with  curious  minute- 
ness of  detail ;  and  the  art  of  portraiture  continued  to  be, 
from  first  to  last,  the  concrete  expression  of  one  of  the  most 
singular,  obscure,  and  fantastic  religious  beliefs  which  was 
ever  inculcated  by  a  priesthood,  or  by  which  the  mind  of  a 
people  was  influenced.  For  every  sculptured  statue,  every 
painted  portrait,  whether  of  a  living  person  or  of  a  dead  per- 
son, was  regarded  as  a  supplementary  body  dedicated  to  the 
service  of  the  Ka. 

And  this  strange  dogma  which  we  have  traced  from  its 
earliest  known  beginnings,  four  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  retained  its  hold  upon  the  minds  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  continued  to  be  enforced  as  a  cardinal  article  of 
faith  by  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  till  the  abolition  of  the 
ancient  national  religion  by  the  edict  of  Theodosius,  A.D.  379. 

One  of  the  most  surprising  facts  by  which  we  are  con- 
fronted when  beginning  the  study  of  ancient  Egyptian  por- 
trait sculpture  is  the  immense  superiority  of  the  earliest 
school,  when  compared  with  the  schools  of  later  periods.  It 
is  in  this  respect  that  the  history  of  art  in  the  Yalley  of  the 
Nile  differs  most  strikingly  from  the  history  of  art  in  any 
other  country  of  the  ancient  world.  When  we  speak,  for 
instance,  of  an  archaic  Greek  statue,  we  mean  by  implication 
a  stiff  figure  with  a  vacant  expression  of  face,  eyes  set  aslant, 
a  meaningless  smile,  rigid  limbs,  and  muscles  abnormally  de- 
veloped. But  when  we  speak  of  an  Egyptian  statue  of  the 
time  of  the  Ancient  Empire — that  is  to  say,  of  the  most  ar- 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  135 

chaic  period  known — we  refer  to  a  figure  modelled  direct 
from  the  life,  and  treated  on  ultra -naturalistic  lines.  We 
now  know  why  the  art  of  the  Memphite  school  was  so  essen- 
tially realistic.  "We  now  know  that  these  statues  are,  one 
and  all,  Ka-statues,  and  that  the  sculptors  who  produced 
them  were  governed  by  the  necessity  of  providing  a  faith- 
ful likeness  for  the  benefit  of  the  Ka.  But  the  marvel 
of  their  execution  remains  the  same.  We  in  vain  ask  how 
long  a  period  of  foregone  civilization  must  have  elapsed  be- 
fore the  art  can  have  attained  to  this  high  degree  of  excel- 
lence. We  only  know  that  the  earliest  work  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  to  which  it  is  possible  to  put  an  approximate  date 
is  a  funerary  tablet  in  bas-relief  belonging  to  the  remote 
period  of  the  Second  Dynasty,*  and  that  it  is  not  inferior  to 
similar  works  executed  under  the  Fourth  Dynasty.  It  is 
impossible  even  to  conjecture  the  length  of  time  during 
which  the  Egyptians  must  have  been  gradually  working 
their  way  upward  through  higher  and  higher  levels  of  civil- 
ization, in  order  to  arrive  at  these  results.  When  we  first 
become  acquainted  with  them  as  sculptors  and  builders,  they 
are  already  adults ;  and  as  yet  we  have  found  no  relics  of 
their  infancy. 

The  oldest  historical  portrait-statue  yet  discovered  is  that 
of  Queen  Mertetefs,f  wife  of  Seneferu,  the  last  king  of  the 
Third  Dynasty,  and  wife,  by  her  second  marriage,  to  Khufu, 
the  first  king  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  who  was  no  less  fa- 
mous a  personage  than  the  builder  of  the  Great  Pyramid. 
The  statue  is  one  of  a  limestone  group  of  three  figures,  rep- 
resenting Queen  Mertetefs,  her  Ka,  and  a  priest  named  Ken- 
nu,  who  was  her  private  secretary.  The  Queen  and  her  Ka 


*  This  tablet  was  found  in  the  Necropolis  of  Sakkara,  brought  from 
Egypt  by  J.  Greaves,  an  Oxford  professor,  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  presented  to  the  Ashmolean  Museum  in  1683  by  the 
Rev.  R.  Huntington.  It  is  of  the  time  of  Senta,  the  thirteenth  Pharaoh  of 
the  Second  Dynasty. 

f  This  statue,  or  rather  the  group  of  which  it  forms  part,  is  aruong  the 
Egyptian  treasures  of  the  Museum  of  Antiquities  at  Leyden. 


136 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


sit  side  by  side,  and  are  exactly  alike,  the  flesh-tints  being 
painted  buff,  and  the  hair  black.  Queen  Mertetefs  survived 
her  second  husband,  and  lived  to  hold  three  important  offices 
under  her  nephew  Khafra,  who  was  the  second  king  of  the 


KHUFU-ANKH    AND    HIS    SERVANTS. 


From  a  bas-relief  sculpture  in  his  tomb  at  Ghizeh.     Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  M. 

Flinders  Petrie. 


Fourth  Dynasty,  and  builder  of  the  second  pyramid  of 
Ghizeh.  She  was  "Administrator  of  the  Great  Hall  of  the 
Palace,  Mistress  of  the  Royal  Wardrobe,  and  Superintend- 
ent of  the  Chamber  of  Wigs  and  Head-dresses."  Her  name, 
Mertetefs,  signifies  "  beloved  of  her  father." 

Contemporary  with  Queen  Mertetefs  was  Ivhufu-Ankh,  a 
great  nobleman  of  the  time  of  Khufu,  whose  tomb  is  in  the 
shadow  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  and  whose  magnificent  sar- 
cophagus is  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  Ghizeh.  Khufu- 
Ankh  was  Keeper  of  the  Royal  Seal ;  and  he  is  represented 
in  the  bas-relief  sculptures  on  the  walls  of  his  tomb  attended 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  137 

by  his  servants.  Later  in  point  of  date,  but  on  the  same 
plane  as  regards  technique,  is  the  example  below  of  bas-relief 
sculpture  from  the  tomb  of  one  Semnefer,  also  in  the  Ne- 
cropolis of  Ghizeh.  Semnefer  lived  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  later  than  Queen  Mertetefs ;  and  we  have  here  the 
profile  portraits  of  himself  and  his  wife,  the  Lady  Hotep-hers. 
The  heads  of  all  these  Fourth  Dynasty  personages  are  marked 
by  that  child-like  simplicity  which  distinguishes  the  archaic 
school,  and  they  place  before  us  with  much  fidelity  the  eth- 
nological type  of  the  earliest  Egyptians.  There  is  not  a 


SEMSEFER    AND    HIS    WIFE   HOTKP-HERS. 


From  a  bas-relief  sculpture  in  the  tomb  of  Semnefer  at  Ghizeh.     Photographed  by 
Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 

i 

drop  of  negro  blood  in  this  race.  Their  noses  are  slightly 
arched ;  their  lips  are  full  and  well  turned ;  their  chins  are 
short ;  their  jaws  are  delicate ;  their  heads  high,  and  well 
rounded. 

To  about  the  same  date  belong  the  statues  of  General  Ra- 
hotep  and  his  Avife,  Princess  Nefert,  on  the  following  page. 


138 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


This  old-world  couple  have  been  largely  popularized  of  late 
years  in  various  illustrated  books  treating  of  ancient  Egyptian 
art ;  but  they  cannot  be  spared  from  any  typical  series  of 


GENERAL    BA-HOTEP    AND    PRIXCESS    NEKKP.T. 


Painted  limestone  statues,  life-size,  discovered  at  Meydum,  and  attributed  by  Mari- 
ette  to  the  time  of  Seneferu,  Third  Dynasty.  Professor  Maspero  assigns  them, 
however,  to  a  later  period. 


the  Memphite  school.  In  General  Ra-hotep  we  behold  a 
stalwart,  square-cut,  sturdy  man  of  the  same  racial  type  as 
Semnefer.  The  brow  is  well  developed ;  the  nose  is  sharply 
cut  and  slightly  arched ;  the  cheek-bones  are  high ;  the  lips 
are  full ;  the  chin  is  small ;  the  brain-case  is  of  ample  size. 
He  was  a  man,  one  would  say,  of  strong  common-sense  and 
determination  of  character. 

The  features  of  his  wife,  Princess  Kefert,  though  cast  in 
a  more  delicate  and  aristocratic  mould,  are  marked  by  the 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


139 


same  physiological  traits ;  and  it  is  evident,  from,  these  and 
other  examples  of  the  same  period,  that  the  Egyptians  of  the 
Ancient  Empire  were  a  strongly  built,  massive-headed  race, 
with  well-defined  noses,  high  cheek-bones,  and  full  lips. 

These  statues  are  carved  in  fine  limestone,  seated,  and  col- 
ored.    The  flesh-tints  of  Nefert  are  buff,  and  those  of  Ka- 
hotep  reddish-brown;  the  buff  representing  the  fairer  com- 
plexion of  the  woman,  while  the  darker  hue  of  the  man  is 
intended  to  convey  the  results  of  exposure  to  the  sun.     The 
eyes  of  both  are  inserted,  the  whites  being  of  opaque  white 
quartz,  and  the  iris  of  transparent  crystal.     A  small  silver 
nail  fixed  behind  the  iris  re- 
ceives and  reflects  the  light, 
thus  imitating  the  shifting 
light  of  the  living  orb. 

The  famous  statue  known 
as  the  "  Wooden  Man  of  Bii- 
lak"  is  about  half  life-size. 
It  represents  a  stout,  com- 
monplace, elderly  Egyptian 
named  Ra-em-ka,  who  was 
an  overseer  of  public  works 
in  the  time  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty.  He  must  have 
witnessed  the  building  of 
one  or  other  of  the  great 
pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  and  he 
probably  superintended  the 

workmen  at  their  toil.  It  is  a  good-natured,  contented  face, 
carefully  studied  from  the  life ;  and  the  eyes,  like  those  of 
Ra-hotep  and  Nefert,  are  inserted. 

Long  admixture  with  Asiatic  blood  has  so  thinned  down 
the  race  that  a  fat  native  is  now  one  of  the  rarest  of  Egyp- 
tian curiosities;  but  elderly  men  of  very  comfortable  pro- 
portions are  frequently  represented  in  the  sculptures  of  the 
early  school.  The  treatment  of  this  admirable  head  is  so 
masterly  that  one  scarcely  notices  how  the  wood  is  split 


RA-KM-KA. 

Called  "  The  Wooden  Man  of  Bulak." 


140  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

in  every  direction ;  but  that  it  should  be  thus  split  is  not 
wonderful  if  we  remember  that  the  tree  which  was  felled 
to  make  this  statue,  and  the  man  who  sat  for  it,  flour- 
ished nearly  six  thousand  years  ago. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  plebeian  type  of  Ka-em-ka  is 
the  limestone  statue  of  one  Ti,  a  courtly  gentleman  of  the 
Fifth  Dynasty.  No  less  than  nineteen  statues  of  Ti  were 
found  immured  in  the  substance  of  the  walls  of  his  tomb, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Egypt.  The  figure 
stands  about  seven  feet  high,  the  flesh-tints  being  of  a  pale 
brick-dust  color,  and  the  wig  yellow.  The  pose  of  the  head 
is  spirited,  and  the  expression  of  the  face  is  open  and  life- 
like. Ti's  shoulders  are  very  square,  his  arms  long,  his  body 
slender;  this  being  the  characteristic  type  of  the  well-growTn 
fellah  of  the  present  day.  The  muscles  of  the  arms  and 
thorax  are  excellently  rendered.  With  the  statues  of  the 
master  were  frequently  buried  statues  of  his  servants,  that 
they  might  continue  to  wait  upon  him  and  work  for  him  in 
the  world  beyond  the  tomb.  (35)  These  statues  generally 
represent  the  servant  as  engaged  in  his  or  her  daily  work — 
making  bread,  carrying  burdens,  washing  out  wine-jars,  and 
the  like.  Our  next  example  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  a 
gentleman  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty,  and  it  represents  a  house- 
hold scribe.  This  humble  dependant  kneels  with  crossed 
hands,  as  though  awaiting  his  lord's  instructions.  His  va- 
cant and  deprecating  smile  expresses  the  patient  resignation 
of  a  life  of  servitude.  He  has  no  will,  and  no  opinions  of 
his  own.  His  back  is  well  acquainted  with  the  time-honored 
"stick,"  and  he  is  so  well  trained  in  the  virtues  of  obedi- 
ence and  submission  that  he  not  only  takes  his  punishment 
without  a  murmur,  but  is  ready  to  kiss  the  hand  by  which 
it  is  administered. 

The  "  Cross-legged  Scribe "  (p.  143)  belongs  to  the  same 
class  and  the  same  period.  He  is  a  man  of  about  forty 
years  of  age,  plain-featured,  intelligent,  a  little  more  fleshy 
and  less  muscular  than  one  who  has  lived  the  life  of  the  fields, 
yet  hardy  and  active.  He  is  writing  to  dictation,  and  he 


THE   ORIGIN   OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


141 


waits,  pen  in  hand,  till  the  next  sentence  shall  fall  from  the 
lips  of  his  employer.  The  face  is  instinct  with  attention. 
The  eyes  are  inserted.  The 
hands,  the  knees,  the  muscles  of 
the  arms  and  body  are  sculpt- 
ured with  minute  anatomical  ex- 
actness. This  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  ancient  Egyptian 
statues,  andr  fortunately,  the 
original  of  our  illustration  can 
be  seen  without  a  journey  to 
Cairo,  for  it  is  in  the  Museum  of 
the  Louvre. 

"With  the  Memphite  school  we 
bid  good-bye  to  the  first,  and  in 
some  respects  the  finest,  period 
of  Egyptian  portraiture.  It  was, 
par  excellence,  the  one  great  re- 
alistic school  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  it  owed  its  inspira- 
tion to  that  extraordinary  dogma 
which  necessitated  the  making 
of  an  artificial  body  for  the  Ka. 
This  dogma,  as  I  have  said,  con- 
tinued in  force  as  long  as  the 
Egyptian  religion  lasted ;  but  its 
influence  upon  the  art  of  the 
sculptor  is  more  manifest  in  the 
time  of  the  Ancient  Empire  than 
at  any  subsequent  period.  See- 
ing how  marvellously  life-like 
these  earliest  Ka-statues  are,  one 
would  almost  be  tempted  to  say 
that  the  faith  which  inspired 

their  makers  was  more  vivid  than  the  faith  of  later  times. 
They  are,  as  it  were,  informed  with  something  of  that  vital- 
ity which  they  were. supposed  to  enshrine.  When  Mariette's 


STATUE    OF   TI. 

In  the  Museum  of  Ghizeh. 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Arabs  opened  the  tomb  in  which  the  statues  of  Nefert  and 
Ra-hotep  were  discovered,  they  first  drew  back  ir  terror ; 
and  then,  believing  them  to  be  inhabited  by  demons,  were 
with  difficulty  restrained  from  smashing  them.    Their  alarm 
was  natural  enough.     Looking  into  the  eyes  of  this  wonder- 
ful pair,  and  seeing  how  the 
light  shifts  in  their  liquid 
depths,  it  is  difficult  not  to 
believe  that  they  look  at  us, 
even  as  we  look  at  them,  and 
that  their  gaze  is  not  fol- 
lowing us  as  we  move  from 
group  to  group  in  the  hall 
of  the  museum  Avhere  they 
sit   enthroned.      But   how 
strangely  and  luridly  those 
eyes  of  quartz  and  crystal 
must  have  gleamed  from  the 
depths  of  that  dark  sepul- 
chre of  Meydum  into  which 
no  ray  of  daylight  had  found 
its  way  for  nearly  six  thou- 
sand years ! 

Up  to  the  time  when  Ma- 
riette  discovered  the  secret 
Ka-chambers  in  the  massive 
walls  of  the  tombs  of  the 
Ancient  Empire,  there  had 
prevailed  an  entirely  errone- 
ous notion  as  to  the  charac- 
teristics of  Egyptian  sculpt- 
ure. It  was  believed  to  be 
wholly  conventional,  stiff, 
and  unnatural ;  and  this 
sweeping  condemnation  was 

applied  without  distinction  to  the  art  of  all  periods,     It, 
however,  needs  but  a  glance  at  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 


THE    KNEELING   SCRIBE. 

Limestone  statue,  Fifth  Dynasty.     In 
the  Museum  of  Ghizeh. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  143 

the  early  Memphite  school — or  even  at  the  foregoing  illus- 
trations— to  dispel  that  prejudice.  Yet  we  must  be  careful 
not  to  claim  too  much  for  even  the  sculptors  of  the  "  Cross- 
legged  Scribe  "  or  the  "  Wooden  Man."  Their  skill  was  in 


THK    CROSS  LKGGED    SCRIBE. 

Limestone  statue,  colored,  half  life-size.     In  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre. 

many  respects  quite  marvellous ;  but  it  had  its  limitations. 
If  I  might  venture  somewhat  to  paraphrase  one  of  Sir 
Charles  Newton's  happiest  definitions,  (")  I  would  say  that 
the  sculptors  of  ancient  Egypt  never  grappled  with  some  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  which  were  solved  by  the  sculp- 
tors of  ancient  Greece.  They  lacked  that  fine  insight  which 
enabled  a  Praxiteles  and  a  Phidias  to  detect  the  whole  in- 
ternal organism  beneath  the  bodily  surface.  They  never 
succeeded,  perhaps,  in  thoroughly  expressing  the  relation  be- 


144  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

tween  those  muscles  which  are  the  sources  of  motive  power, 
and  the  bones  which  supply  leverage.  Neither  did  they  at- 
tempt to  represent  the  texture  and  elasticity  of  the  skin, 
which  clothes,  yet  does  not  hide,  the  structure  beneath  the 
surface.  But  they  did  perceive,  and  they  did  correctly  re- 
produce, the  general  effect  and  proportions  of  the  human 
form.  They  indicated  with  remarkable  skill  all  its  most 
salient  features,  such  as  the  muscles  of  the  legs,  arms,  and 
thorax,  and  the  modelling  of  the  knees ;  yet,  strange  to  say, 


AMKXKMHAT    I.       (TWELFTH    DYNASTY.) 

Colossal  head  in  red  granite,  from  the  ruins  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Tanis. 
Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  51.  F.  Petrie. 


they  never  attained  to  even  a  moderate  degree  of  success 
in  their  treatment  of  the  hands  and  feet.  These  are  always 
wooden  and  ill-proportioned.  Take  them,  however,  with  all 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE.  145 

their  shortcomings,  the  old  Memphite  sculptors  were  of  that 
stuff  of  which  the  early  Florentine  school  was  made  some 
fifty -five  centuries  later.  As  for  portraiture,  properly  so 


COLOSSAL    HEAD   OF   A   HYKSOS   KINO. 


(Supposed  to  be  Salatis.)     Sculptured  in  blnck  granite,  and  discovered  by  Mariette 
at  Tell  Mokhdam,  in  the  Fayum. 


called,  namely,  heads,  faces,  expression,  and  that  indescriba- 
ble something  which  indicates  character — or  in  other  words, 
the  outward  modifications  wrought  upon  the  features  by  the 
workings  of  the  mind — no  artists  of  any  age  have  therein 
excelled  the  sculptors  of  the  Ancient  Empire. 

The  next  great  school  of  Egyptian  portrait  sculpture  is 
that  of  the  Middle  Empire,  which  culminated  under  the 
Twelfth  Dynasty. 

The  sculptors  of  this  age  excelled  in  the  skill  with  which 

they  cut  and  polished  the  hardest  stones,  such  as  basalt, 

diorite,  and  granite.      A  vast  crowd  of  Twelfth  Dynasty 

Pharaohs,  their  queens  and  families,  carved  in  these  obdu- 

10 


146  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

rate  materials  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  great 
temples  of  Tanis  and  Bubastis.  Unfortunately,  most  of 
them  have  been  usurped  by  the  kings  of  later  periods,  who 
have  erased  the  names  of  the  originals  and  substituted  their 


HYKSOS    SPHINX,  IN    PROFILE. 

From  the  ruins  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Tanis,  and  now  in  the  Museum  of  Ghizeh. 
Black  granite.     Photographed  by  Mr.  VV.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


own.  These  grand  statues  are  chiefly  of  colossal  size,  and 
are  almost  invariably  mutilated.  A  royal  portrait-statue  of 
the  Twelfth  or  Thirteenth  Dynasty  with  its  royal  nose  in- 
tact is  a  rara  avis. 

During  the  interval  which  elapsed  bet\veen  the  Thirteenth 
and  Seventeenth  dynasties,  Egypt  was  overrun  by  a  bar- 
barian host  from  beyond  the  Eastern  border,  and  so  lost  her 
liberty  for  nearly  five  hundred  years.  This  dark  interval  is 
known  as  the  Hyksos  Period,  or  the  time  of  the  Shepherd 
Kings.  The  invaders  were  a  mixed  multitude  of  warlike 
tribes  from  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  that  vast  dis- 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


147 


trict  known  in  a  later  age  as  the  two  Scythias.  These 
hungry  hordes  were  led  by  a  race  of  Turanian  type  who 
founded  the  so-called  Hyksos  dynasties,  and  portraits  of 
certain  of  their  kings  have  been  preserved  to  us  in  Egyp- 
tian sculptures  of  that  period.  They  were  a  race  of  hard- 
featured  warriors,  with  wide  and  high  cheek-bones,  open 
nostrils,  and  mouths  curved  sternly  downward  at  the  cor- 
ners. 

We  have  on  page  145  a  full-face  view  of  a  colossal  fragment 
found  in  the  Fayum.  It  is  believed  to  be  a  portrait  of  Sala- 
tis,  the  first  king  of  the  Hyksos  line.  His  heavy  plaited  wig 
is  quite  unlike  the  wig  worn  by  the  Egyptians,  and  he  wears 
uncouth  ornaments  of  barbaric  style.  Battered  though  it 


HYKS6S   SPHINXES  (TANIS.) 

The  broken  fragments  of  several  of  these  sphinxes  yet  strew  the  ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Tanis.  They  are  all  duplicates  of  the  one  in  the  Museum  of  Gizeh.  In 
the  above  illustration  we  see  the  fore  part  of  two,  and  beyond  them  the  broken 
halves  of  a  red  granite  obelisk  of  Rameses  II.  Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 
Petrie. 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

is,  this  rugged  face  is  thoroughly  representative.  The  high 
cheek-bones,  the  saturnine  expression,  and  the  curious  mus- 
cular bosses  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  especially  char- 
acteristic of  the  Hyksos  race. 

The  same  racial  characteristics  are  strongly  marked  in 

this  profile  of  a  human- 
headed  sphinx  found  in  the 
ruins  of  the  Great  Temple 
of  Tanis.  The  type  is  dis- 
tinctly Mongolian,  and  the 
skill  with  which  the  Egyp- 
tian sculptor  has  seized 
upon  and  reproduced  it 
shows  that  the  portrait 
sculptors  of  this  period 
were  in  nowise  inferior  to 
their  Memphite  predeces- 
sors. It  is  probably  a  por- 
trait of  Apepi,  the  last 
and  most  celebrated  of  the 
Hyksos  usurpers. 

By  far  the  finest  piece 
of  portrait  sculpture  of  the 
Hyksos  school  is,  however, 
the  colossal  sitting  statue 
of  a  Hyksos  king  discov- 
ered in  1888  by  M.  Na- 
ville,  in  the  course  of  his 
excavations  on  the  site  of 
the  Great  Temple  of  Bu- 

bastis.  This  superb  work  of  ancient  art  is  one  of  a  pair 
which  were  placed  on  either  side  of  the  great  gate -way 
through  which  the  Temple  was  approached;  and  as  the 
names  and  titles  of  Apepi  were  sculptured  on  a  door-jamb 
of  that  gate-way,  close  by  the  spot  where  the  broken  colossi 
were  found,  there  would  seem  to  be  good  reason  for  the 
assumption  that  we  have  in  one  or  other  of  these  statues,  if 


QUEEN    HATAStT. 

Colossal  head  in  limestone,  discovered  in 
the  ruins  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Kar- 
nak  and  preserved  in  the  Museum  of 
Ghizeh.  From  the  drawing  by  Bourgoin 
in  Perrot  and  Chipiez's  Egypte. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


149 


not  in  both  a  portrait  of  the  famous  tyrant  of  the  First 
Sallier  Papyrus.  (37)  The  features  of  the  pair  are,  however, 
very  different ;  the  one  whose  head  is  reproduced  in  the 
illustration  on  page  146  being  the  likeness  of  a  man  some 
twenty  years  the  junior  of  his  fellow.  Which  of  the  Hyksos 
usurpers  that  elder  figure  may  represent  we  cannot  even 
guess;  but  the  face  of  the  younger  is  identical  with  the 
faces  of  the  human-headed  spl^nxes  of  Tanis ;  and  to  them, 


RAMKSKS    II.,  SURNAMKD    "THE    GREAT." 

From  a  group  in  red  granite.     Tanis.     Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 

as  to  him,  in  the  absence  of  any  evidence  to  the  contrary, 
we  may  provisionally  assign  the  name  of  Apepi.(8") 

The  Theban  princes  rose  at  last,  expelled  the  alien  ty- 
rants, and  restored  the  descendants  of  the  old  Twelfth-Dy- 


150  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

nasty  Pharaohs.  Then  followed  the  glorious  days  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty— a  line  of  builder  and  warrior  kings,  in 
whose  roll  are  numbered  the  great  names  of  Tkothmes  III., 
Amenhotep  III.,  and  the  renowned  Queen  Hatasu.  In  pre- 


KAMKSKS    II. 

Bas-relief,  from  the  Great  Temple  of  Karnalt.     Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F. 

Petrie. 

senting  this  beautiful  head  as  a  portrait  of  Hatasu,  it  must 
be  premised  that  it  has  already  been  attributed  by  Marietta 
to  Queen  Tii,  the  wife  of  Amenhotep  III.,  and  by  Maspero 
to  the  wife  of  Iloremheb.  'Seen  in  profile,  however,  this 
face  is  identical  in  outline  with  the  profile  of  Queen  Ha- 
tasu as  sculptured  upon  one  of  the  fragments  of  her  broken 
obelisk  at  Karnak.  Even  the  dimple  in  the  chin,  which  is  so 
conspicuous  in  the  front  face,  is  represented  by  a  slight  de- 
pression in  the  profile  chin  of  the  obelisk  portrait.*  I  have 

*  See  Profile  of  Hatasu,  chap.  viii. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  151 

been  furthermore  informed  that  the  above  fragment  was 
discovered  under  the  debris  of  a  small  chamber  at  the  back 
of  one  of  Hatasu's  obelisks  in  the  ruins  of  the  Great  Temple 
of  Karnak ;  and  it  is  for  these  reasons  that  I  venture  to  think 
that  it  can  represent  none  other  than  the  great  queen  her- 
self. The  rest  of  the  statue  is  lost ;  but  this  precious  frag- 
ment is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Egyptian  art.  The  eyes 
laugh ;  the  lips  all  but  speak ;  and  every  feature  is  alive  with 


Bas-relief,  from  his  sepulchre  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  at  Thebes. 
From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


a  vivacious  charm,  which  is  ever  the  rarest  achievement  in 
sculpture.  The  size  is  colossal,  and  the  material  a  fine,  mar- 
ble-like limestone. 

When  we  pass  from  the  Eighteenth  to  the  Nineteenth  and 
Twentieth  dynasties,  we  enter  upon  an  entirely  new  phase 
of  Egyptian  art.  Rameses  I.,  the  founder  of  the  former  line, 


152 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


was  of  Semitic  birth  ;  and  although  his  son,  Seti  L,  wedded 
an  Egyptian  princess  of  the  old  royal  line,  the  Pharaohs  of 
his  dynasty  retained  a  marked  Semitic  type  which  affected 
the  sculptors  and  tigure-painters  of  the  time  in  a  very  cu- 
rious manner.  Because  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  II.  had  long 
noses,  long  heads,  long  bodies,  and  long  legs,  the  artists  of 
the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  gave  long  noses,  long  heads,  long 
bodies,  and  long  legs  to  all  their  sitters ;  thus  falsifying  the 


Bas-relief,  from  his  sepulchre  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  Thebes. 
From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


national  type,  and  introducing  an  element  of  great  monot- 
ony into  the  art  of  the  period. 

The  history  of  portraiture,  like  the  history  of  nations,  re- 
peats itself.  In  times  comparatively  recent,  court  beauties 
set  the  fashion  in  features,  and  court  painters  adapted  all 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE. 

fair  faces  to  the  prescribed  pattern.  It  was  so  in  the  clays 
of  Charles  II.  and  Louis  XIV.,  and  it  was  so  in  the  far-off 
days  of  the  Pharaohs. 

The  hereditary  characteristics  of  the  two  Ramesside  lines 


RAMESKS  in.  (TWENTIETH  DYNASTY). 

From  a  bas-relief  in  his  sepulchre  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  at 
Thebes.     Photographed  by  Mr.'W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


are  nowhere  more  strikingly  shown  than  in  the  numerous 
bas-relief  portraits  of  royal  personages  sculptured  on  the 
walls  of  the  great  temples  of  Karnak  and  Medinet-Habu, 
and  in  the  famous  sepulchres  of  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs 
of  the  Kings.  Of  these,  a  few  examples  will  suffice. 

On  page  149  is  shown  a  head  of  Rameses  the  Great,  from 
a  group  in  red  granite.  This  fine  head  (unfortunately  mu- 
tilated) yet  lies  amid  the  ruins  of  Tanis.  The  nose  being 
gone,  Ave  lose  the  Semitic  profile,  which,  however,  is  well 


154 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


seen  in  our  illustration  on  page  150,  taken  from  a  beautiful 

bas-relief  sculpture  in  the  Great 
Temple  of  Karnak.  In  the  first  of 
these  portraits  the  great  Pharaoh 
wears  the  khepersch,  or  war-helmet, 
adorned  in  front  with  the  uraeus  of 
royalty.  This  head-dress  is  some- 
times represented  in  colored  bas- 
reliefs  as  covered  with  panther- 
hide;  and  sometimes  it  is  shown 
of  a  brilliant  cobalt-blue,  the  sur- 
face studded  with  small  yellow 
rings.  This,  perhaps,  is  intended 
to  reproduce  the  effect  of  a  copper 
helmet  artificially  colored  by  being 
plunged,  when  in  a  heated  condi- 
tion, into  a  sulphur  spring,  thus 
converting  the  surface  into  copper 
sulphide.  This,  if  covered  with  an- 
nulets of  gold,  would  have  a  beau- 
tiful effect.  It  is  possible  that  cop- 
per thus  colored  was  the  Homeric 
kuanos. 

In  the  second  portrait  Rameses 
wears  a  wig  of  close-laid  curls,  and 
on  his  brow  the  golden  uraeus.  In 
both  these  sculptures  the  great 
Pharoah  is  represented  at  about 
eighteen  years  of  age. 

Our  illustration  on  page  151  re- 
produces the  features  of  Seti  II., 
grandson  of  Rameses  II. ,  from  his 
tomb  in  the  same  valley.  This 
charming  profile  closely  resembles 
the  profile  of  his  grandfather  Ra- 
meses the  Great.  The  reign  of  this 
prince  was  apparently  long  and  un- 


1IUMMY  CASK    OF    QITKEN   AHMKS 
XKKKRT.UU. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT  SCULPTURE.  155 

eventful.  Several  of  bis  colossal  portrait  -  statues  are  pre- 
served in  the  museums  of  Europe,  and  his  fine  tomb  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  at  Thebes,  yet  con- 
tains his  granite  sarcophagus,  carved  on  the  lid  with  his  full- 
length  figure  in  bas-relief.  But  by  far  the  most  interesting 
monument  of  his  reign  is  a  fragile  papyrus  in  the  British 
Museum,  containing  the  celebrated  "  Tale  of  the  Two  Broth- 
ers." This  tale  consists  of  two  parts  of  different  date,  the 
first  half  being  evidently  very  ancient,  and  the  second  show- 
ing by  unmistakable  internal  evidence  that  it  was  composed 
under  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  According  to  the  colophon, 
this  papyrus  was  written  by  the  hand  of  the  royal  librarian 
by  order  of  the  Chief  of  the  Treasury,  and  it  was  apparently 
the  King's  own  copy,  being  twice  endorsed  with  his  name 
on  the  back  of  the  document.  As  the  handwriting  differs 
from  that  of  the  manuscript,  these  may  be  Seti's  own  auto- 
graphs. 

The  family  likeness  of  the  Ramessides  is  perpetuated  in  a 
marked  degree  in  the  portrait  of  Siptah  on  page  152,  a 
prince  whose  history  is  obscure,  but  who  seems  to  have  been 
a  son  of  Seti  II.,  and  great-grandson  of  Rameses  the  Great. 
Siptah  and  his  queen,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  Egyptian 
royalty,  were  buried  in  one  grave. 

With  Rameses  III.,  we  enter  upon  the  Twentieth  Dynas- 
ty. Descended  through  his  father  from  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
preceding  line,  Rameses  III.  inherited  not  only  the  same 
Semitic  type,  but  the  same  warlike  tastes  and  the  same  pas- 
sion for  building.  He  was  the  last  of  the  fighting  Pharaohs, 
and  with  him  the  glory  of  Egypt  expired.  The  first  naval 
battle  known  to  history  was  fought  in  his  reign,  and  is  pict- 
ured1 on  the  walls  of  his  great  temple  in  western  Thebes. 
His  tomb  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs  of 
the  Kings ;  his  funerary  papyrus,  ninety  feet  long,  is  in  the 
British  Museum ;  and  his  mummy  is  in  the  National  Egyp- 
tian Museum  at  Ghizeh.  He  was  succeeded  by  nine  kings 
of  the  name  of  Rameses.  Several  of  these  were  his  sons, 
and  they  seem  to  have  followed  each  other  with  ominous  ra- 


15G  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

pidity.     The  portrait  is  from  the  walls  of  his  great  temple 
at  Medinet-IIabu. 

There  was  yet  another  variety  of  portrait  sculpture  which 
cannot  be  passed  over  in  silence,  and  which  was  peculiarly 
an  Egyptian  art:  namely,  the  portrait-masks  carved  in  wood, 
with  which  the  mummy-cases  of  this  extraordinary  people 
were  decorated.  Many  of  the  portrait-masks  are  evidently 
carefully  studied  likenesses,  and  reproduce  the  features  of 
the  deceased  with  as  much  fidelity  as  do  the  portrait-statues 
and  bas-relief  subjects  found  in  his  tomb.  One  of  the  largest 


MASK    FROM    MUMMY-CASK    OF    RAMESES    II. 


and  most  magnificent  mummy-cases  ever  discovered  is  that 
of  Queen  Ahmes  Nefertari,  now  in  the  Museum  of  G-hizeh. 
It  is  of  colossal  size,  and  it  represents  this  celebrated  royal 
lady  as  holding  the  "ankh"  in  each  hand,  while  on  her  head 
she  wears  the  helmet  and  plumes  of  Amen.  The  material 
of  the  mummy -case  is  the  usual  "  cartonnage,"  consisting  of 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  PORTRAIT   SCULPTURE. 


157 


many  layers  of  linen  hardened  together  by  glue,  and  coated 
outside  with  stucco.  This  cartonnage  is  impressed  all  over 
the  arms,  shoulders  and  head-dress,  with  a  reticulated  sex- 
agonal  pattern,  which  gives  the  surface  the  appearance  of 
being  honey-combed.  Each  little  sexagonal  hollow  is  paint- 
ed blue,  the  groundwork  being  of  a  vivid  yellow.  The  face, 
hands,  and  necklace  are  also  painted  blue. 
This  mask  of  Kameses  II.,  from  the  lid 
of  his  wooden  sarcophagus,  is  in  the  Muse- 
um of  Ghizeh.  The  head,  however,  is  not 
a  contemporary  portrait;  neither  does  it 
faithfully  reproduce  the  features  of  Ra- 
meses  II. ;  but  it  is  a  very  beautiful  speci- 
men of  portrait  sculpture  in  wood  of  the 
time  of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty.  The 
sarcophagus  adorned  with  this  wood-sculp- 
ture appears  to  have  been  made  to  receive 
the  mummy  of  Rameses  II.,  in  the  sixth 
year  of  the  rule  of  Her-Hor  Se-Amen,  of 
the  Twenty-first  Dynasty,  when  the  tombs 
of  the  earlier  Pharaohs  were  visited  by 
Government  inspectors,  and  when  (accord- 
ing to  the  entries  inscribed  on  their  coffins) 
the  "funerary  appointments  "  of  Seti  I.  and 
Rameses  II.  were  renewed  by  order  of  Her-  RA-EM-KA. 

Hor,  then  High-Priest  of  Amen,  and  after- 
wards king.(39)  The  features  of  this  mask  bear,  however, 
a  curious  resemblance  to  the  features  of  the  little  pen-portraits 
of  Her-Hor  in  the  great  funerary  papyrus  of  his  mother, 
Queen  Notem-Maut ;  and  this  furnishes  us,  perhaps,  with  a 
clue  to  its  unwritten  history.  To  give  up  his  own  tomb  in 
favor  of  another,  has  ever  been 'a  distinguished  mark  of  honor 
among  the  nations  of  the  East;(40)  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  Her-Hor  may  have  given  up  to  his  illustrious  predeces- 
sor the  beautiful  mummy-case  made  for  his  own  mortal  re- 
mains, when  he  too  should  be  summoned  to  traverse  the  Yal- 
ley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death. 


V. 

EGYPT   THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK 
DECORATIVE  ART. 

A  SCHOLAR  of  no  less  distinction  than  the  late  Sir  Richard 
Burton  wrote  the  other  day  of  Egypt  as  "  the  inventor  of 
the  alphabet,  the  cradle  of  letters,  the  preacher  of  animism 
and  metempsychosis,  and,  generally,  the  source  of  all  human 
civilization."  This  is  a  broad  statement;  but  it  is  literally 
true.  Hence  the  irresistible  fascination  of  Egyptology  —  a 
fascination  which  is  quite  unintelligible  to  those  who  are 
ignorant  of  the  subject.  I  have  sometimes  been  asked,  for 
instance,  how  it  happens  that  I  —  erewhile  a  novelist,  and 
therefore  a  professed  student  of  men  and  manners  as  they 
are — can  take  so  lively  an  interest  in  the  men  and  manners 
of  five  or  six  thousand  years  ago.  But  it  is  precisely  be- 
cause these  men  of  five  or  six  thousand  years  ago  had  man- 
ners, a  written  language,  a  literature,  a  school  of  art,  and  a 
settled  government  that  we  find  them  so  interesting.  Our- 
selves the  creatures  of  a  day,  we  delight  in  studies  which 
help  us  to  realize  that  we  stand  between  the  eternity  of  the 
past  and  the  eternity  of  the  future.  Hence  the  charm  of 
those  sciences  which  unfold  to  us,  page  by  page,  the  un- 
written records  of  the  world  we  live  in.  Hence  the  eager- 
ness with  which  we  listen  to  the  Story  of  Creation  as  told 
by  the  geologist  and  the  paleontologist. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      15<J 

But  the  history  of  Man,  and  especially  of  civilized  man, 
concerns  us  yet  more  nearly ;  and  the  earliest  civilized  man 
of  whom  we  know  anything  is  the  ancient  Egyptian. 

From  the  moment  when  he  emerges — a  shadowy  figure — 
from  the  mists  of  the  dawn  of  history,  he  is  seen  to  have  a 
philosophical  religion,  a  hierarchy,  and  a  social  system.  How 
many  centuries,  or  tens  of  centuries,  it  took  him  to  achieve 
that  result  we  know  not.  Of  the  time  when  he  was  yet  a 
savage  we  detect  no  trace.  His  faintest,  farthest  footprint 
on  the  sands  of  Time  bears  the  impress  of  a  sandal. 

To  this  nation  which  first  translated  sounds  into  signs,  and 
made  use  of  those  signs  to  transmit  the  memory  of  its  deeds 
to  future  generations,  we  naturally  turn  for  the  earliest  in- 
formation of  other  races ;  nor  do  we  so  turn  in  vain. 

Before  they  have  any  writing  or  any  history  of  their  own, 
we  meet  with  the  Ethiopians,  the  Libyans,  the  Phoenicians, 
the  Babylonians,  the  Assyrians,  in  the  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions of  ancient  Egypt.  And  in  these  inscriptions,  graven 
on  the  storied  walls  of  temples  and  pylons  older  by  a  thou- 
sand years  than  the  opening  chapters  of  classical  history,  we 
also  find  the  first — the  very  first — mention  of  the  people  of 
Greece  and  Italy. 

It  Avould  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  interesting  subject  of 
inquiry  than  the  relations  of  prehistoric  Greece  to  Egypt, 
or  than  to  measure,  as  far  as  possible,  the  extent  of  that  debt 
which  the  early  Greeks  owed  to  the  teaching  and  example  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians. 

The  history  of  Greece  and  the  Greeks,  as  told  by  them- 
selves, may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  first  recorded  Olym- 
piad, seven  hundred  and 'seventy-six  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  is  at  this  point  that  we  begin  to  draw  the  line 
between  fable  and  fact.  But  the  first  mention  of  the  Greeks 
upon  the  monuments  of  Egypt  goes  back  some  seventeen 
centuries  earlier,  to  a  rock -cut  tablet  of  the  time  of  San- 
khara,  a  Theban  King  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty  who  reigned 
about  two  thousand  five  hundred  years  before  Christ.  They 
appear  in  this  memorable  inscription  as  the  "Hanebu"- 


160  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

that  is  to  say,  "  the  people  of  all  coasts  and  islands ;"  there- 
by meaning  the  coast -folk  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  islanders  of  the  ^Egean.  Now,  it  is  a  very  interesting 
fact  that  "  Ilanebu,"  as  a  generic  name  for  these  same  tribes, 
is  exactly  paralleled  by  the  Hebrew  " iye  haggoim"  which  is 
used  not  only  by  the  prophets,  but  earlier  still  in  the  Mosaic 
books,  where  it  is  said  of  the  sons  of  Yavan,(41)  in  the  tenth 
chapter  of  Genesis,  "  Of  these  were  the  isles  of  the  nations 
divided  in  their  lands."  The  Kevised  Version,  here  quoted, 
gives  an  alternative  reading  of  "coastlands"  for  islands; 
"  Hanebu  "  and  ;'  lye  haggaim  "  being  strictly  capable  of  both 
interpretations.  After  this,  we  hear  no  more  of  the  early 
Greeks  in  Egypt  till  they  reappear  as  the  Danai  or  Danasans, 
some  twelve  or  thirteen  hundred  years  later,  in  the  reign 
of  Thothmes  III.  Now,  Thothmes  III.  was  the  Alexander 
of  ancient  Egyptian  history.  He  conquered  the  known 
world  of  his  day ;  he  carved  the  names  of  six  hundred  and 
twenty- eight  vanquished  nations  and  captured  cities  on  the 
walls  of  Karnak ;  and  he  set  up  a  tablet  of  Victory  in  the 
Great  Temple.  It  is  in  this  famous  tablet,  engraved  with 
the  oldest  heroic  poem  known  to  science,  that  we  find  the 
Greeks  mentioned  for  the  second  time  in  Egyptian  history. 

"  I  came !"  says  the  Great  God  Amen,  addressing  the  King, 
who  is  represented  at  the  top  of  the  tablet  in  an  attitude 
of  worship,  "  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  those  who 
dwell  in  their  islands.  Those  also  who  live  in  the  midst  of 
the  sea  hear  thy  war-cry  and  tremble !  The  isles  of  the  Danai 
are  in  the  power  of  thy  viill!" 

That  they  are  now  called  Danai,  or  descendants  of  Danaos, 
the  traditional  King  of  Argolis,  is  a  point  to  be  noted ;  for  it 
shows  that  these  barbarian  Greeks  had  already  a  legendary 
lore  of  their  own.  And  it  does  more  than  this.  It  shows 
that  in  the  time  of  Thothmes  III.,  although  we  are  still  dis- 
tant some  eight  hundred  years  from  the  presumed  date  of 
the  "  Iliad,"  the  name  of  Dana3ans  (like  that  of  AchaBans 
somewhat  later)  was  already  applied  in  the  Homeric  sense  to 
the  whole  Hellenic  race.  According  to  no  other  interpretation 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OP  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      161 


could  the  Danai,  who  were  originally  but  a  small  tribe  settled 
on  the  mainland  in  Argolis,  be  described  as  "  those  who  dwell 
in  their  islands."  Danai,  however,  which  is  a  transcription 
from  the  Greek,  did  not  supersede  "  Hanebu,"  which  is  pure 
Egyptian.  We  accordingly  find  "  Hanebu  "  again  employed 
about  two  hundred  years  later  in  a  colossal  bas-relief  group 
of  Pharaoh  Horemheb  and  his  prisoners  of  war,  among  whom 
may  be  seen  a  gang  of  captive  "  Hanebu  " — men  and  women 
—with  their  race-name  inscribed  against  them.  The  heads  of 
the  men  are  defaced,  but  the  profile  of  one  woman  is  yet  per- 
fect ;  and  that  profile  is 
the  earliest  portrait  of 
a  Greek  in  the  world. 
The  eye  is  defaced ; 
but  the  delicate  out- 
line of  the  features  is 
yet  uninjured.  She 
wears  one  long  ring- 
let (presumably  one  on 
each  side);  and  this 
ringlet  is  a  character- 
istic feature  of  female 
heads  in  archaic  Greek 
art.  It  may  therefore 
be  assumed  that  it  was 
a  national  fashion  from 
the  earliest  period.  I 
may  as  well  add  that 
the  word  "  Hanebu," 
as  a  generic  term  for 
the  Hellenes,  whether 
Asiatic  or  European, 
survived  till  the  time 

of  the  Ptolemies,  when  the  Greeks  ruled  in  Egypt.  Native 
Egyptian  scribes  of  that  comparatively  modern  age  used 
it  to  denote  the  governing  race,  just  as  their  remote  fore-fa- 
thers had  used  it  to  denote  Greek  barbarians  taken  in  battle. 
11 


HKAD    OF    IIANKBU    WOMAN. 


Bas-relief  from  the  Pylon  of  Horemheb,  at 
Karnak.  From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie. 


102  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

From  Horemheb  to  Barneses  II.  carries  us  a  hundred  years 
farther  along  the  stream  of  time.  In  Barneses  II.  we  are  fain 
to  recognize  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Great  Oppression,  and  in 
Meneptah,  his  son  and  successor,  the  probable  Pharaoh  of  the 
Exodus.  Under  both  these  kings,  and  again  under  Barneses 
III.  some  fifty  or  sixty  years  later  still,  the  Greeks  of  the 
main-land,  the  Greeks  of  the  islands,  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor,  come  thronging  in  quick  succession  upon  the  stage  of 
history. 

Leagued  with  the  Hittites  under  the  command  of  a  Hittite 

O 

prince,  they  invade  the  Syrian  provinces  of  Egypt  in  the 
fifth  year  of  Barneses  II.  Pharaoh  himself  goes  forth  against 
them,  and  being  cut  off  from  the  main  body  of  his  forces,  is 
waylaid  under  the  walls  of  Kadesh,  a  fortified  place  on  the 
Orontes.  Thus  surprised,  with  only  his  body-guard  to  defend 
him,  the  hero  charges  them  in  his  chariot,  hews  them,  down, 
puts  them  to  flight,  and  defeats  them  utterly.  Six  times, 
says  a  contemporary  poet,  he  rushed  upon  the  foe.  "  Six 
times  he  trampled  them  like  straw  beneath  his  horse's  hoofs. 
Six  times  he  dispersed  them  single-handed,  like  a  god.  Two 
thousand  five  hundred  chariots  were  there,  and  he  overthrew 
them ;  one  hundred  thousand  armed  warriors,  and  he  scat- 
tered them.  Those  that  he  slew  not  with  his  hand,  he  pur- 
sued unto  the  water's  edge,  causing  them  to  leap  to  destruc- 
tion as  leaps  the  crocodile  !" 

So  said  Pentaur,  the  poet-laureate  of  his  day,  in  an  epic 
which  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  describe  as  the  "  Iliad  "  of  an- 
cient Egyptian  literature.  It  may  be  that  Pentaur's  version 
of  the  facts  is  somewhat  florid.  I  fear  that  we  must  accept 
his  statistics  with  some  reserve ;  but  laureates  are  privileged, 
and  Pentaur  scarcely  abused  that  privilege  more  than  Dryden 
and  his  successors. 

In  this  poem,  which  is  sculptured  at  full  length  on  four 
great  temples  and  written  on  a  precious  papyrus  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  we  find  a  list  of  the  allies  of  the  Hittites.  Among 
them  are  five  Hellenic  nations — namely,  the  "  Masu"  or  My- 
sians ;  the  "Z<?&w,"  or  Lycians ;  the  "Akerit"  or  Carians ;  the 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GEEEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      163 

"Aiuna"  or  lonians ;  the  "Dardani "  or  Dardanians.  Four 
of  these  —  the  Lycians,  Mysians,  Carians,  and  lonians — are 
dwellers  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  near  neighbors  of 
the  Hittites.  The  fifth  is  from  Thrace,  on  the  European 
main-land,  where  their  name,  the  Dardanians,  survives  to 
this  day  in  the  Dardanelles. 

The  Greeks  disappear  for  the  remainder  of  the  long  reign 
of  Rameses  II. ;  but  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  successor,  as  we 
learn  from  an  inscription  at  Karnak,  the  Libyans,  in  alliance 
with  a  host  of  barbarians  from  over  the  sea,  invade  Egypt 
from  the  westward.  The  battle-roll  of  this  new  coalition  is 
in  truth  the  first  page  of  the  first  chapter  of  European  histo- 
ry. The  Etruscans,  Sardinians,  and  Sicilians,  the  Lycians  and 
Achaeans,  are  in  the  ranks  of  the  enemy.  This  event  marks 
the  earliest  entry  of  the  Achteans  upon  the  world's  great 
stage,  as  it  also  marks  the  entry  of  the  Latin  races.  They 
come  into  momentary  contact  with  Egyptian  civilization,  and 
in  the  record  of  their  defeat  receive  for  the  first  time  a  name 
and  a  place  in  the  annals  of  the  ancient  East. 

Of  these  new-comers  the  most  interesting  to  us,  by  far,  are 
the  Acha3ans.  That  they  should  have  crossed  from  the  Pelo- 
ponessus  to  the  coast  of  Libya,  shows  that  they  were  already 
skilled  to  speed  their  hollow  ships  along  the  wine-colored  sea. 
But  what  of  the  men  themselves  ?  Were  they  fair,  long- 
haired, and  stalwart,  as  became  the  forerunners  of  the  com- 
rades of  Achilles  ?  We  know  not ;  for  the  wall  on  which  this 
inscription  is  carved  is  in  a  ruinous  state,  and  the  part  which 
was  once  occupied  by  the  bas-relief  sculptures  is  unfortu- 
nately gone.  But  for  this  accident,  Egypt  might  have  pre- 
served for  us  a  portrait-group  of  prehistoric  Achasans.  We 
do  know,  however,  that  they  were  clad  in  brass,  like  the 
heroes  of  Homer ;  for  in  the  catalogue  of  booty  seized  by 
the  victorious  Egyptians,  wre  find  a  list  of  three  thousand 
one  hundred  and  seventy -five  swords,  poignards,  cuirasses, 
and  even  greaves — the  distinctive  armor  of  "the  well-greaved 
Acha3ans." 

For  cuirasses  the  Egyptian  language  had  a  special  term, 


164  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

'Tarena;  but  for  "  greaves,"  wearing  no  leg-armor  themselves, 
they  had  no  synonym.    They  therefore  represented  the  greave 
pictorially,  and  made  of  it  an  ideographic  hieroglyph.  (" ) 
This  figure,  accurately  representing  a  Greek  greave,  even 
to  the  strap  by  which  it  was  buckled  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  knee,  is  clearly  cut  in  the  in- 
scription.    It  is  followed,  moreover,  by  the  hie- 
roglyph for  "  copper,"  and  by  the  generic  ideo- 
graph which  stands  in  Egyptian  for  "metals;" 
thus  indicating  that  the  Achaean  armor  was  of 
EGYPTIAN      brilss,   which  the   scribe   probably  mistook   for 

HIEROGLYPH  J 

KOI;  A        copper. 

And  now,  for  the  space  of  a  century  there  is 
peace,  till  again,  about  twelve  hundred  years  be- 
fore our  era,  the  barbarian  flood  pours  southward.  Fore- 
most among  the  foe  are  the  Danasans  and  the  Lycians. 
First  in  alliance  with  the  Syrians,  next  with  the  Libyans, 
they  attack  Egypt  by  land  and  sea ;  and  each  time  they  are 
signally  routed. 

It  may  be  that  at  last  they  had  learned  to  look  upon  the 
Egyptians  as  invincible ;  or  it  may  be  that  they  found  the 
balmy  climate  and  fertile  soil  of  Southern  Europe  more  at- 
tractive ;  but  the  tide  of  invasion,  at  all  events,  set  henceforth 
in  a  north-westerly  direction ;  nor  do  we  again  encounter  the 
Greek  on  Egyptian  soil  till  some  five  hundred  and  thirty-four 
years  later,  when  Psammetichus,  Prince  of  Sais  and  Memphis, 
defeats  his  colleagues  of  the  Dodecarchy  by  the  aid  of  an 
army  of  Carian  and  Ionian  mercenaries,  and  founds  the 
Twenty-sixth  Egyptian  Dynasty. 

Too  wise  to  part  from  the  weapon  which  his  own  hand  had 
forged,  too  politic  to  irritate  his  subjects  by  a  display  of 
foreign  force,  Psammetichus  established  his  Greeks  in  two 
large  camps,  one  on  each  side  of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the 
Nile.  There,  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Syrian  frontier,  he 
granted  them  lands  and  a  permanent  settlement.  Here,  too, 
he  built  a  royal  stronghold,  or  "  palace-fort,"  for  the  occa- 
sional accommodation  of  himself  and  his  court.  Soon  a  busy 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE   ART.      165 

town  sprang  up  in  the  shelter  of  the  camps  and  the  castle, 
and  more  Greek  settlers  came  from  over  the  sea  —  potters 
and  metal-workers,  shipwrights,  jewellers,  and  the  like.  And 
docks  were  built ;  and  the  place  became  a  port,  and  a  centre 
of  Greek  industry;  and  it  was  known  far  and  near  as  Daph- 
na3  of  Pelusium.  This  also  is  the  town  which  in  the  Bible 
is  called  "  Tahpanhes ;"  and  this  same  palace-fort,  founded  by 
Psammetichus  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  years  before  Christ, 
is  the  royal  residence  which  Hophra,  a  later  Pharaoh  of  the 
same  dynasty,  assigned  for  a  refuge  to  the  daughters  of  Zed- 
ekiah,  when  they  fled  from  Jerusalem  into  "  the  land  of 
Egypt."  The  Egyptian  name  for  that  ancient  castle  is  un- 
known to  us ;  but  we  read  of  it  in  the  forty-third  chapter  of 
the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah  as  "  Pharaoh's  house  at 
Tahpanhes." 

Now,  according  to  Herodotus,  these  fortified  camps  at 
Daphnae  and  the  town  adjoining  formed  the  site  of  "  the  first 
settlement  of  a  foreign-speaking  people  in  Egypt ;"  and  He- 
rodotus was  probably  so  far  right  that  Daphnae  was  the  first 
legally  established  colony  of  aliens  in  conservative  Egypt. 
Mr.  Flinders  Petrie's  explorations  in  1889  having,  however, 
brought  to  light  traces  of  two  much  earlier  Greek  settlements, 
we  are  fain  to  rectify,  in  some  degree,  this  statement  of 
Herodotus.* 

That  the  Greeks,  who  were  the  most  active,  imitative, 
quick-witted,  and  ingenious  people  of  antiquity,  did  settle  in 
Egypt,  no  matter  how  early  or  how  late,  is  the  really  impor- 
tant fact — a  fact  of  primary  significance  in  the  history  of 
the  arts. 

Daphnae  of  Pelusium  was  destined  to  be  eventually  super- 
seded by  Naukratis.  It  flourished  for  about  one  hundred 
years,  till  Amasis,  the  last  of  the  Sai'te  Kings,  removed  the 
Greek  garrison  to  Memphis,  and  made  over  the  city  of  Nau- 
kratis  to  the  Greek  traders.  He  thus  transferred  the  Egyp- 
tian centre  of  Greek  commerce  from  the  Eastern  to  the 

*  See  chap.  iii.  on  "  Portrait- Painting  in  Ancient  Egypt." 


166  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

Western  Delta.  Daphnae  from  this  time  seems  to  have  been 
completely  abandoned ;  for  Herodotus,  who  writes  as  if  he 
had  seen  the  place  with  his  own  eyes,  states  that  "  the  docks 
where  the  Greek  vessels  were  laid  up,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
houses  in  which  the  Greek  citizens  of  Daphnae  once  dwelt," 
were  yet  visible  in  his  time. 

At  Daphnae  first,  and  then  at  Naukratis,  the  Greeks  thus 
found  a  permanent  and  -  recognized  footing  in  Egypt.  No 
longer  as  undisciplined  and  semi  -  civilized  hordes  hurling 
themselves  in  vain  against  the  trained  battalions  of  the 
Pharaohs,  no  longer  as  miserable  captives  haled  through  the 
streets  of  Thebes  behind  the  chariot  wheels  of  a  conqueror 
do  they  now  come  before  us ;  but  as  hardy  soldiers,  as  busy 
citizens,  as  thriving  merchants.  The  native  Egyptians  de- 
spise them,  mistrust  them,  and  will  neither  eat  nor  wed  with 
them,  nor  do  anything  but  trade  with  them.  But  the  stran- 
gers are  quick  to  learn  and  skilful  to  imitate ;  and  ere  long 
they  rival  their  masters  as  artists  and  craftsmen,  disputing 
many  a  market  in  which  the  Egyptians  have  for  ages  en- 
joyed an  immemorial  monopoly.  At  Daphnaa,  the  lonians 
and  Carians,  and  at  Naukratis  the  Milesians,  rapidly  become 
famous  as  potters,  reproducing  and  improving  upon  the  time- 
honored  designs  of  Egypt.  They  even  make  scarabs,  and 
amulets,  and  images  of  the  Egyptian  gods  for  the  Egyptian 
bazaars. 

I  am  drawing  no  imaginary  picture.  The  sites  of  Daphnaa 
and  Naukratis  have  been  excavated  within  the  last  four  years 
by  Mr.  Flinders  Petrie,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  direct  and  indirect  results  of  these  explorations  have  com- 
pletely settled  that  interesting  question  which  has  been  so 
often  debated  and  so  long  unanswered — namely,  the  question 
of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  aesthetic  debt  of  Greece  to 
Egypt. 

That  debt,  in  so  far  as  it  was  in  their  power  to  estimate  it, 
was  freely  admitted  by  the  later  Greeks  themselves.  Solon, 
Thales,  Pythagoras,  Eudoxus,  Eratosthenes,  Plato,  and  a  host 
of  others,  were  proud  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  most  ancient  of 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK   DECORATIVE  ART.      167 

nations ;  but  they  were  wholly  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  they 
owed  the  first  elements  of  civilization  and  those  greatest  of 
all  gifts,  the  alphabet  and  the  art  of  writing,  to  the  wisdom 
of  the  Egyptians. 

We  now  know  what  the  Greeks  themselves  never  knew. 
We  know  that  their  prehistoric  ancestors  ventured  their  des- 
perate fortunes  against  the  might  of  the  Pharaohs  at  a  date 
so  remote  that  they  must  have  beheld  the  dawn,  as  well  as 
the  splendor,  of  Thebes ;  and,  knowing  this,  we  also  know 
what  they  saw  in  Egypt,  and  what  they  must  certainly  have 
learned  there. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  to  be  supposed  that  these  coastmen  and 
islanders  of  the  ./Egean  were  without  some  rudimentary  no- 
tions of  art  of  their  own.  In  the  time  of  Thothmes  III., 
there  were  already  Cypriote  settlers  making  Cypriote  pot- 
tery, and  inscribing  their  pots  with  Cypriote  characters  at 
Tell  Gurob.  In  the  time  of  Meneptah,  the  Lycians  and  Ca- 
rians  and  Acha3ans  were  ship-builders  and  workers  in  bronze ; 
and  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  they  fashioned  rude 
Cyclopean  temples,  like  the  primitive  temple  discovered  a  few 
years  ago  in  Delos,  with  probably  an  upright  stone  for  a  god. 
But  architecture,  sculpture,  and  original  decorative  art,  we 
may  be  sure  they  had  none. 

And  the  proof  that  they  had  none  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  earliest  known  vestiges  of  Greek  architecture,  Greek 
sculpture,  and  Greek  decorative  art  are  copied  from  Egyp- 
tian sources. 

It  is  not  at  all  strange  that  the  Greeks  should  have  bor- 
rowed their  first  notions  of  architecture  and  decoration  from 
Egypt,  the  parent  of  the  arts ;  but  that  they  should  have  bor- 
rowed architectural  decoration  before  they  borrowed  archi- 
tecture itself,  sounds  paradoxical  enough.  Yet  such  is  the 
fact ;  and  it  is  a  fact  for  which  it  is  easy  to  account. 

The  most  ancient  remains  of  buildings  in  Greece  are  of 
Cyclopean,  or,  as  some  have  it,  of  Pelasgic  origin ;  and  the 
most  famous  of  these  Cyclopean  works  are  two  subterraneous 
structures  known  as  the  Treasury  of  Atreus  and  the  Treas- 


168  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

ury  of  Minyas — the  former  at  Mycenas,  in  Argolis,  the  latter 
at  Qrchomenos,  in  Boeotia.  Both  are  built  after  the  one 
plan,  being  huge  dome-shaped  constructions  formed  of.  hori- 
zontal layers  of  dressed  stones,  each  layer  projecting  over 
the  one  next  below,  till  the  top  was  closed  by  a  single  block. 
The  whole  was  then  covered  in  with  earth,  and  so  buried. 
Such  structures  scarcely  come  under  the  head  of  architecture, 
in  the  accepted  sense  of  the  word. 

Now,  whether  the  Pelasgi  were  the  rude  forefathers  of 
the  Aryan  Hellenes,  or  whether  they  were  a  distinct  race  of 
Turanian  origin  settled  in  Greece  before  Hellas  began,  is  a 
disputed  question  which  I  cannot  pretend  to  decide ;  but  what 
we  do  know  is,  that  the  prehistoric  ruins  of  Mycenae  and  Or- 
chomenos  are  four  hundred,  if  not  five  hundred,  years  older 
than  the  oldest  remains  of  the  historic  school.  Of  all  that 
happened  during  the  dark  interval  which  separated  the  pre- 
historic from  the  historic,  we  are  absolutely  ignorant. 

If,  however,  the  builders  of  Mycenae  and  Orchomenos  were 
Pelasgians,  and  if  the  builders  of  the  earliest  historic  temples 
were  Hellenes,  it  is,  at  all  events,  certain  that  the  Pelasgians 
went  to  Egypt  for  their  surface  decoration,  and  the  Hellenes 
for  their  architectural  models.  Moreover — and  this  is  very 
curious — they  both  appear  to  have  gone  to  school  to  the  same 
place.  That  place  is  on  the  confines  of  Middle  and  Upper 
Egypt,  about  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles  above  Cairo, 
and  its  modern  name  is  Beni-Hasan. 

The  rock-cut  sepulchres  of  Beni-Hasan  are  among  the  fa- 
mous sights  of  the  Nile.  They  are  excavated  in  terraces  at 
a  great  height  above  the  river,  and  they  were  made  for  the 
great  feudal  princes  who  governed  this  province  under  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,.  Their  walls  are  covered 
with  paintings  of  the  highest  interest ;  their  ceilings  are  rich 
in  polychromatic  decoration;  and  many  are  adorned  with 
pillared  porches  cut  in  the  solid  rock.(43) 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  foundation  of  the  Twelfth 
Egyptian  Dynasty — the  great  dynasty  of  the  Usertesens  and 
Amenemhats — dates  from  about  3000  to  2500  vears  before 


THE  BIRTHPLACE   OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE   ART.      169 


Christ.  These  Beni-Hasan  sepulchres  are  therefore  older  by 
many  centuries  than  the  so-called  " Treasuries"  of  Qrcho- 
menos  and  Mycenaa. 

Now,  at  Mycenae,  near  the  entrance  to  the  Treasury  of 
Atreus,  there  stands  the  base  and  part  of  the  shaft  of  a  col- 
umn decorated  with  a  spiral  ornament,  which  here  makes  its 
first  appearance  on  Greek 
soil.  This  spiral  (though  it 
never  achieved  the  univer- 
sal popularity  of  the  me- 
ander, or  "  key  pattern,"  or 
of  the  misnamed  "  honey- 
suckle pattern")  became 
in  historic  times  a  stock 
motive  of  Hellenic  de- 
sign; and  all  three  pat- 
terns— the  spiral,  the  me- 
ander, and  the  honey- 
suckle—  have  long  been 
regarded  as  purely  Greek 
inventions.  But  they  were 
all  painted  on  the  ceilings 
of  the  Beni-Hasan  tombs 
full  twelve  hundred  years 
before  a  stone  of  the 
Treasuries  of  Mycenae  or 
Orchomenos  was  cut  from 
the  quarry.  The  spiral, 
either  in  its  simplest  form, 
or  in  combination  with 

the  rosette  or  the  lotus,  is  an  Egyptian  design.     The  rosette 
is  Egyptian ;  and  the  honeysuckle,  which  Mr.  Petrie  has  iden- 
tified as  a  florid  variety  of  the  lotus  pattern,(44)  is  also  dis- 
•  tinctly  Egyptian. 

The  spiral  in  combination  with  the  rosette  is  first  found, 
as  a  decorative  design,  on  a  ceiling  in  one  of  the  tombs  at 
Beni-Hasan,  as  in  the  following  illustration ;  and  in  another 


DECORATED  COLUMN  AT  MYCENAE. 


170 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


SPIRAL    AND   ROSETTB    DKSIG.V. 

Beni  -  Hasan  ceiling,  Twelfth 
Dynasty. 


ceiling  decoration  from  the  same  rich  mine  of  early  design, 
we  have  the  key  pattern — the  canonical  Greek  key  pattern 
— combined  also  with  the  rosette. 

The  identity  of  these  and  other  Beni-Hasan  designs  with 
the  classic  motives  of  Greek  deco- 
rative art  was  first  pointed  out  by 
Mr.AV.  H.  Goodyear  in  his  remark- 
able paper  on  the  "  Egyptian  Ori- 
gin of  the  Ionic  Capital  and  of  the 
Anthemion,"  contributed  to  the 
American  Journal  of  Archaeology 
in  1888.  To  the  same  chain  of 
demonstrations  belongs  the  next 
illustration,  representing,  side  by 
side,  a  specimen  of  Beni-Hasan 
decoration  and  a  fragment  of  pre- 
historic painted  pottery  found  by 
Dr.  Schliemann  in  the  course  of  his 

excavations  at  MycenaB — a  fragment  coeval,  apparently,  with 
the  Treasury  and  the  pillar. 

This  pattern  is  known  as  the  heart-shaped,  or  herzWatt, 
pattern.  It  has  always  been  ac- 
cepted as  of  Greek  origin ;  but  be- 
side it  is  given  an  example  of  the 
same  design,  more  ornately  treated, 
from  another  of  the  Beni-Hasan  ceil- 
ings. 

The  foregoing  illustrations  of  V=E=^  ^^isE^i 
Greek  design  being  derived  from 
Mycenaean  sources,  we  will  next  turn 
to  Orchomenos.  It  was  here  that 
Dr.  Schliemann,  in  1880,  discovered 
in  the  Treasury  of  Minyas  a  small 
and  hitherto  unsuspected  chamber, 
which  had  originally  been  decorated 

with  a  stone  ceiling  consisting  of  four  large  slabs  elaborately 
carved.(")  These  slabs  had  fallen,  and  were  lying  on  the 


ROSETTE    AND    KEY-PATTKRN. 

Beni-Hasan  ceiling,  Twelfth 
Dynasty. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      171 

floor ;  and  Dr.  Schliemann  was  thus  enabled  to  take  paper 
casts  of  the  design,  which  consists  of  an  outer  border  of  small 
squares,  an  inner  border  of  rosettes,  and  a  centre  which  he 
describes  as  "  spirals  interwoven  with  palm-leaves,  between 
which  a  long  bud  shoots  forth." 

Dr.  Schliemann  then  goes  on  to  say  that  the  same  sort  of 
spiral  is  found  at  Troy  and  at  Mycenas,  and  that  rosettes 
(which  he  designates  as  "  palmettes  ")  also  occur  at  the  lat- 
ter place ;  but  he  claims  that  the  composition  of  the  Orcho- 


TWO    EXAMPLES    OF    HERZ-BLATT    PATTERN. 

1.  Potsherd  from  Mycenae.  2.  Beni-IIasan  ceiling. 


menos  design  is  "  perfectly  new."  He  further  adds  that 
Professor  Ziller  believed  this  decoration  to  have  been  "the 
motive  of  a  carpet,  from  which  it  was  copied  on  the  ceiling ; " 
while,  according  to  Professor  Sayce,  the  rosettes  were  "orig- 
inally Babylonian,  and  passed  over  into  Phoenician  art,  which 
they  characterize."(") 

But  these  eminent  archa3ologists,  when  they  lent  the  weight 
of  their  authority  to  these  views,  were  for  once  in  error.  The 
carpet  theory  is,  of  course,  below  criticism.  The  Pelasgians, 
or  Prehistoric  Greeks,  may  have  spread  their  floors  with 
skins,  the  spoils  of  the  chase ;  but  it  needs  some  imagination 
to  conceive  of  them  as  weavers  of  carpets  and  rugs.  The  ro- 
settes were  Egyptian  before  they  were  ever  Babylonian  or 
Phoenician.  And  as  for  the  composition  of  the  Orchomenos 
pattern,  so  far  from  being  "  perfectly  new,"  it  is  found  as  a 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


EXAMPLE    OF    ROSETTE    BORDER    AND    CENTRAL 
DKSIGN    OF    SPIRAL    AND    LOTUS. 

From  a  ceiling  pattern  at  Orchomenos.     Pre- 
historic Greek. 


cornice  design  at  Beni-IIasan,  where  it  decorates  tombs  older 
by  at  least  twelve  centuries  than  the  Treasury  of  Minyas. 

The  illustration  re- 
produces two  cornice 
patterns  from  Beni-Ha- 
san.  The  first  example 
gives  the  spiral  in  com- 
bination with  a  fan-like 
ornament,  which  is  but 
a  simplified  variation 
on  the  lotus  pattern. 
In  the  second  example 
the  rosette  is  substitut- 
ed for  the  inner  curves 
of  the  spiral,  and  the 
intermediate  space  is 
filled  in  with  the  true 

lotus  motive.  The  Orchomenos  design  is  palpably  an  adap- 
tation from  these  two  Egyptian  originals.  The  spiral  is  the 
spiral  of  No.  1 ;  the  rosettes  are  taken  out  of  the  spirals  of 
No.  2,  and  transferred  to  the  bor- 
der ;  while  Dr.  Schliemann's  "  long 
bud"  is  simply  an  elongation  of 
the  centre  petal  of  the  lotus.  As 
for  the  so-called  "  palmette,"  it  is 
neither  more  nor  less  than  a  vari- 
ation of  the  lotus.  It  should  be 
added  that  all  these  Beni-Hasan 
patterns  are  to  be  found  in  Eosel- 
lini's  volume  of  Monumenti  Civili; 
and  that  Mr.  "W.  H.  Goodyear's 
further  researches  into  the  Lotus 
origin  of  these  and  other  motives 
of  decorative  design,  not  only  in 

Greece,  but  in  many  other  lands  of  the  ancient  world,  will 
shortly  be  given  to  the  public  in  his  forthcoming  work,  en- 
titled The  Grammar  of  the  Lotus. 


CORNICE  PATTERNS  FROM  BENI- 
HASAN  TOMBS. 

1.  Spiral  and  Lotus.     2.  Spiral, 
Lotus,  and  Rosette. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.     173 

The  identity  of  these  patterns  being  demonstrated,  and 
the  priority  of  the  Egyptian  originals  being  beyond  dis- 
pute, it  remains  to  be  asked  whether  it  is  possible  to  regard 
the  Greek  reproductions  as  mere  fortuitous  coincidences. 

Let  us  for  a  moment  suppose  that  we  know  nothing  of 
the  presence  of  prehistoric  Greeks  in  Egypt.  Let  us  grant 
that  the  triumphal  chant  of  Thothmes  III.,  and  the  epic 
of  Pentaur,  and  the  annals  of  Meneptah  and  Rameses  III. 
had  never  been  translated.  Could  we,  even  so,  have  gone 
through  this  series  of  designs  without  recognizing  that  some 
must  be  originals  and  others  copies?  We  might  not,  it  is 
true,  have  known  whether  the  Greek  sat  at  the  feet  of  the 
Egyptian,  or  the  Egyptian  at  the  feet  of  the  Greek  ;  but  we 


FA£ADE   OF    TOMB    AT    BENI-HASAN. 


should  surely  have  seen  that  one  must  be  the  pupil,  and  the 
other  the  master. 

The  historic  school  of  Greek  architecture  begins  at  Corinth 
with  the  remains  of  a  Doric  temple  dating  from  about  650 


174 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


B.C.;  and  this  ruin  is  believed  to  be  the  oldest  in  Greece.  In 
its  extreme  simplicity  of  style  and  the  inelegant  strength  of 
its  proportions,  it  is  impossible  not  to  recognize  a  close  but 
clumsy  relationship  to  Egyptian  models.  Ferguson  boldly 

asserts,  indeed,  that  this  struct- 
ure is  "  indubitably  copied  " 
from  the  pillared  porches  of 
Beni-Hasan.(47) 

The  columns  of  these  pil- 
lared porches  have  sixteen  flut- 
ings,  a  plain  abacus,  and  no 
plinth.  They  also  support  a 
plain  entablature.  This  is  the 
"  proto  -  Doric  "  type  about 
which  archa3ologists  have  dis- 
puted so  long  and  so  hotly. 

It  is  important  to  compare 
this  so  -  called  "  proto  -  Doric  " 
with  the  Greek  Doric,  of  which 
we  here  have  three  examples, 
showing  the  development  of 
the  order  at  three  periods. 

The  first  is  from  the  early 
temple  at  Corinth ;  the  second 
is  from  the  Parthenon,  dat- 
ing, therefore,  from  the  age  of 

Pericles ;  the  third  and  latest  is  from  a  temple  at  Delos,  of 
the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

The  column  of  the  Corinth  temple  is  identical  in  design 
and  proportions  with  the  columns  of  Beni- Hasan;  the  Par- 
thenon column  is  loftier,  and  of  admirable  grace ;  while  in 
the  Delian  example  we  have  jet  more  height,  no  gradation, 
and  no  grace. 

But  whether  loftier  or  lower,  plain  or  decorated,  the  essen- 
tial principle  of  the  Doric  order  is  Egyptian  to  the  last. 

The  Corinth  column,  however,  was  not  necessarily  copied 
from  Beni-Hasan.  It  may,  with  equal  probability,  have  been 


EXAMPLES    OF   DORIC    COLUMNS. 

1.  From  Corinth.     2.  From  the  Par- 
thenon     3.  From 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.     175 

studied  from  the  Temple  of  Thothmes  III.  at  Karnak — the 
finest  example  of  this  style  in  Egypt. 

M.  Perrot  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Histoire  de  VArt  dans 
VAntiquite,  has  urged,  among  other  objections,  that  this  style 
was  already  archaic  in  Egypt  when  the  Corinth  temple  was 
built ;  and  that,  " not  being  archaeologists"  the  Greeks,  had 
they  borrowed  from  Egypt,  would  surely  have  borrowed  from 
the  more  ornate  and  modern  school.  But  this  is  a  fallacious 


TEMPLE   OF  THOTHMES    III.    AT    KARNAK. 

Eighteenth  Dyuasty. 


argument.  Younger  nations,  when  they  borrow  from  older 
civilizations,  invariably  take  those  things  which  suit  their  spe- 
cial needs ;  and  in  the  proto  -  Doric  column  of  Egypt,  the 
Greek  instinctively  recognized  not  only  the  easiest  model  upon 
which  to  try  his  '"prentice  hand,"  but  that  which  especially 
embodied  those  principles  of  simplicity  and  grace  which  were 
most  in  harmony  with  his  taste  and  his  climate. 

From  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the  Doric  order,  we  pass  on 


176 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


to  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the  Ionic.  In  order  to  prove  this 
point,  I  must  draw  upon  Mr.  W.  H.  Goody  ear's  essay  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  already  referred  to,  and 
briefly  sketch  the  part  played  by  the  lotus  in  Egyptian  art 
— a  part  much  more  considerable  than  has  hitherto  been 
suspected. 

To  the  modern  traveller  who  ascends  the  Nile  from  Cairo 
to  Assuan  without  seeing  a  single  specimen  of  this  famous 
lily,  it  would  almost  seem  as  if  the  lotus  had  become  extinct 
with  the  people  who  in  olden  time  associated  it  with  all  the 
pleasures  of  their  social  life,  and  with  all  the  ceremonies  of 
their  religion.     This,  however,  is  not  the  case.     Of  the  three 
varieties  which  flourished  abundantly  in  the  time  of  Herodo- 
tus—  the  white,  the  blue,  and  the  rose 
lotus — only  the  last  (the  Nelumbium  spe- 
ciosd)  has  disappeared.     The  white  and 
the  blue  Nenuphar*  yet  star  the  unfre- 
quented water-ways  of  the  Delta,  and 
grow  with  rank  luxuriance  in  the  ditches 
and  stagnant  pools  which  abound  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Rosetta  and  Damietta. 
Here  the  children  of  the  fellaheen  still 
pluck  the  pods  and  eat  the  seeds,  as  the 
Egyptians  plucked  and  ate  them  in  the 
days  of  the  Pharaohs.     Beautiful  as  it 
was,  the  rose  lotus  was  not  the  dominant 
lotus  of  Egyptian  decorative  art.     The 
architect,  the  potter,  the  bronze-worker 
turned  rather  to  the  blue  or  white  variety, 
preferring  the  flat  and  floating  leaf  of 
these  species  to  the  bell-shaped  leaf  of 
the  Nelumbium  speciosa.     This  floating 
leaf  slightly  curved  at  the  edge  and  di- 
vided at  its  point  of  junction  with  the 
stem,  furnished  the  architects  of  the  Ancient  Empire  with  a 


LOTUS   LEAF   DESIGN. 

From  a  tomb  of  the 
Ancient  Empire, 
Sakkarah.  From  a 
sketch  by  Mariette- 
Pasha,  in  Les  Mas- 
tahaliK  de  Vancienne 
Empire. 


*  The  NympJuza  Alba  and  the  Nympluza  Ccerulea. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.     177 

noble  and  simple  model  for  decorative  purposes.  Very  slight- 
ly conventionalized,  it  enriches  the  severe  facades  of  tombs 
of  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  dynasties,  which  thus  pre- 
serve for  us  one  of  the  earliest  motives  of  symmetrical  de- 
sign in  the  history  of  ornament. 

In  the  next  illustration*  we  have  the  blossom  and  leaf  of 


NATURAL    LOTUS    IN    BUD,   BLOSSOM,   AND    SEED-POD. 

the  blue  lotus,  and  two  seed-pods  of  the  pink  lotus.     The 
blossom  is  full-blown,  and  the  calyx-leaves,  which  closely 

*  Abridged  from  an  illustration  to  Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  article  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Arclwzology .     Vol.  iii. 
12 


178 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


enfold  it  in  its  earlier  stages,  separate  from  the  fully-opened 
flower.  Thus  separating,  they  droop  over,  and  assume  a 
variety  of  graceful  curves.  These  drooping  calyx-leaves  play 
a  very  important  part  in  the  history  of  architecture;  for 
from  these — and  these  only — were  derived  the  volutes  of  the 
Ionic  capital. 

We  now  pass  from  the  lotus  in  nature  to  the  lotus  in  art. 
Of  the  Egyptian  treatment  of  the  lotus  in  decoration,  we 
next  have  three  examples. 

1.  First  in  order  comes  the  conventional  lotus  of  the  Egyp- 
tian school  of  flower-painting — that  lotus  with  upright  calyx- 
leaves  and  ordered  petals  which  we  know  so  well  from  the 
illustrations  to  Wilkinson  and  Ebers.  As  an  offering  upon 
the  altar,  as  an  oblation  to  the  manes  of  the  dead,  wreathed 
as  a  chaplet,  strung  as  a  necklace,  carried  as  a  bouquet,  we 
meet  with  it  at  every  turn  in  the  tombs  and  temples  of 
Egypt. 


THREE    EXAMPLES    OF    CONVENTIONALIZED    LOTUS. 

1.  From  a  wall-painting.     2.  Wooden  capital,  from  a  wall-painting.     3.  Bas-relief 
on  square  limestone  column. 


2.  The  next  example,  from  a  Theban  wall-painting,  repre- 
sents the  capital  of  a  wooden  column.  Here  we  have  three 
lotus  lilies,  one  large  blossom  and  two  smaller  blossoms,  issu- 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      179 


ing  from  a  conventionalized  base  of  drooping  calyx-leaves. 
A  bud  on  each  side  of  the  calyx  repeats  the  symmetrical  ar- 
rangement of  the  smaller  lotuses  above.  Fantastic  though 
it  is,  and  overcharged  with  detail,  this  capital  gives  a  good 
example  of  the  curvature  of  the  calyx- leaf  in  architectural 
design. 

3.  The  third  example  reproduces  a  bas-relief  decoration 
upon  a  square  granite  column  of  Thothmes  III.  at  Karnak. 
Here  we  have  the  calyx  without  the  flower ;  and  at  this  stage 
of  the  design  we  are  but  one  remove  from  the  Ionic  capital. 
Suppose  a  flat  stone  to  be  placed  on  the  top  of  those  curved 
calyx-leaves,  let  the  weight  of  the  stone  press  them  down- 
wards and  outwards,  and  we  have  the  Ionic  capital  of  Greece. 

Of  the  earliest  known  ex- 
ample of  true  Ionic  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  an  illustra- 
tion; yet  that  earliest  ex- 
ample was  in  existence  only 
six  years  ago.  It  belonged 
to  the  archaic  Temple  of 
Apollo,  at  Naukratis. 

It  was  in  1885  that  Mr. 
Petrie  identified  the  site  of 
that  long -lost  city  with  a 
large  mound  situate  about 
half  -  way  between  Alexan- 
dria and  Cairo,  in  the  West- 
ern Delta.  The  modern  Arab 


EXAMPtK    OF    GRECIAN    IONIC. 


name  for  this  mound  is  Tell 
Nebireh.     It  is  rather  more 

than  half  a  mile  in  length  by  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth  ; 
and  the  canal  along  which,  in  olden  days,  the  Greek  mer- 
chant-galleys sailed  to  and  fro  between  Naukratis  and  the  sea 
yet  skirts  one  side  of  the  mound.  Now,  Herodotus  says  of 
Naukratis  that  Amasis  assigned  it  to  the  Greek  traders,  and 
therewith  granted  them  special  privileges ;  hence  it  has  al- 
ways been  taken  for  granted  that  they  then  first  settled  in 


ISO  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

that  place.  But  Mr.  Petrie's  excavations  show  them  to  have 
been  in  possession  of  the  city  from  a  much  earlier  period — > 
earlier,  perhaps,  than  the  dynasty  to  which  Amasis  belonged. 
What  Amasis  actually  did  for  the  Greeks  of  Naukratis  must, 
therefore,  have  been  to  confirm  them  in  their  occupation  of 
that  site,  and  to  grant  them  an  exclusive  charter  whereby 
they  should  be  entitled  to  hold  it  in  perpetuity. 

The  beginnings  of  Naukratis  seem  to  have  been  humble 
enough,  the  earliest  town  having  been  built  of  wood  and 
burned  to  the  ground,  we  know  not  when  nor  by  whom.  Its 
ashes  underlie  the  ruins  of  the  second  town,  which  dates  from 
about  the  time  of  Psammetichus  I.,  the  founder  of  Daphna3.* 

To  this  period — that  is,  from  about  666  B.C.  to  640  B.C.— 
belong  the  remains  of  that  first  temple  to  Apollo  which  is 
the  very  earliest  of  which  it  can  be  said  with  certainty  that 
it  belonged  to  the  Ionic  order. 

It  was  a  primitive  little  structure  built  of  mud-bricks  faced 
with  stucco,  and  finished  with  decorations  and  columns  of 
limestone.  All  that  remained  of  it  when  discovered  were  a 
few  fragments  of  sculptured  decoration,  the  piece  of  fluted  col- 
umn figured  on  the  following  page,  and  a  single  volute.  That 
volute  —  the  oldest  Ionic  volute  known  —  was  seen  by  Mr. 
Petrie  at  the  moment  when  it  was  turned  up  by  the  spade  of 
the  digger.  He  hastened  to  fetch  his  camera  that  he  might 
photograph  the  fragments  as  they  lay ;  but  before  he  could 
return  to  the  spot,  the  volute  had  been  smashed  up  and  car- 
ried to  the  nearest  lime-kiln.  The  rest  of  the  fragments  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Like  the  Beni-Hasan  columns,  the  flutings  on  this  frag- 
ment of  shaft  are  sixteen  in  number,  and  meet  edge  to  edge, 
without  any  flat  between. 

The  first  Temple  of  Apollo  seems  to  have  been  destroyed 
about  440  B.C.,  to  make  way  for  a  second  and  a  larger  struct- 
ure, adorned  with  columns  and  architraves  of  fine  white 
marble, 

*See  chap,  i.,  "The  Buried  Cities  of  Ancient  Egypt." 


THE  BIRTHPLACE   OF   GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.      181 


FRAGMENTS     OF    SHAFT,   ETC.,  FROM    THE    ARCHAIC 
TEMPLE    OF   APOLLO,   NAUKRATIS. 


The  only  relics  of  this  second  temple  are  here  reproduced 
from  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Petrie.  Scant  though  they  are, 
they  at  all  events  show 
to  what  skill  the 
Greeks  of  Naukratis 
had  by  this  time  at- 
tained in  the  art  of 
decorative  sculpture. 
Among  these  frag- 
ments we  note  an  an- 
themion,  some  bits  of 
the  so-called  Oriental 
palmette,  and  a  few 
scraps  of  lotus  pattern, 
natural!  stically  treated. 
That  the  anthemion 
and  the  palmette  are 

lotus  motives  conventionally  treated  has  been  conclusively 
demonstrated  by  Mr.  "W.  H.  Goodyear  in  a  series  of  exam- 
ples from  Egyptian,  Cypriote,  Greek,  and  Grreco-Koman 

monuments,     which 
trace  the   evolution 
of  these  forms  step 
by  step,  and  leave  no 
room  for  debate.(48) 
It  is  impossible  in 
the  course  of  a  few 
pages    to    do   more 
than  touch  upon 
some   of   the    more 
striking  instances  of 
the  influence  of  the 
lotus   upon   Greek 
decorative  art.    The 
subject,  as  a  whole,  is  too  complicated  and  too  extensive  for 
summary  treatment.  It  will,  however,  be  interesting  to  glance 
at  two  or  three  more  examples  of  lotus  designs,  beginning 


FRAGMENTS   FROM    THE    SECOND    TEMPLE    OF    APOLLO, 
NACKRATIS. 


1S2 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


EGYPTIAN   VASE    WITH    INVERTED    LOTUS 
DESIGN. 

From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petvie. 


with  the  conventional 
treatment  of  Egypt,  and 
leading  up  to  what  is  er- 
roneously called  the  "hon- 
eysuckle pattern  of  the 
Greeks." 

In   this  illustration  we 
have  an  alabaster  vase  of 
pure  Egyptian  style   and 
workmanship,  found  by  Mr. 
Petrie   at   Tell   Nebesheh 
in  a  tomb  of  the  time  of 
the    Twentieth    Dynasty. 
The  lotus  design  engraved 
on  the  shoulder  of  this  vase 
is   identical    in   treatment 
with  the  conventional  lo- 
tus of  the  Egyptian  flower- 
painters,  as  shown  in  the  previous  illustration.    This  is  easily 
demonstrable  by  reversing  the  page,  and  looking  at  the  vase 
upsidedown. 

This  next  vase  is  more 
modern  by  six  hundred 
years.  It  was  found  at 
Tell  Defenneh  (Daphnae 
of  Pelusium)  in  the  ruins 
of  the  palace-fort  of  Psam- 
metichus  I.  As  an  exam- 
ple of  very  early  Greek 
painted  ware,  reproducing 
the  stock  motives  of  Egyp- 
tian decoration  and  dom- 
inated by  Egyptian  influ- 
ences, this  beautiful  vase 
is  most  instructive.  The 

friezes    of    birds    and    ani-  ARCHAIC  G^CO-EGYPTIAN  VASE. 

(Tell  Defenneh.) 
mals    are     Greek,    and    re-         From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.     183 

mind  us  of  the  Rhodian  and  Cypriote  schools.  The  enriched 
"  key  pattern  "  between  the  two  friezes,  and  the  simpler  "  key 
pattern  "  below,  are  Egyptian.  We  have  already  seen  them 
in  the  Beni-Hasan  designs ;  while  the  floral  subjects  in  the 
two  lower  bands  mark  the  first  appearance  of  the  mis- 
named "  honeysuckle "  pattern,  which  is  neither  more  nor 
less  than  a  Greek  variation  upon  the  old  familiar  lotus  and 
scroll  of  the  Beni-Hasan  cornice  patterns.  The  form  of  the 
vase  is  restored  in  dotted  lines  where  broken. 

The  vase  next  reproduced  from  a  drawing  by  Mr.  Petrie  is 
also  from  Tell  Defenneh.     The  lotus  and  scroll  are  treated 
with  yet  more  playful  freedom  and  grace,  and  the  artist  has 
even  ventured  to  combine 
some  dancing  figures  with 
his  design.     In  the  lowest 
register   we  observe,  how- 
ever, a   return  to  the   old 
conventional  forms  —  a  se- 
verely   simplified  lotus   of 
the  Egyptian  type  alternat- 
ing with  an  upright  bud. 

This  simplified  lotus-and- 
bud  pattern,  which  is  much 
more  nearly  related  to  the 
Egyptian  school  of  design 
than  to  the  Greek,  was  by 
no  means  monopolized  by 
the  potters  of  Daphnae.  It 
speedily  became  the  com- 
mon property  of  both  archi- 
tects and  vase  -  painters  in 
all  the  schools  of  Hellas.  It 

appears  for  the  first  time  as  an  architectural  decoration  in  a 
fragment  of  sculptured  necking  from  the  archaic  Temple  of 


ARCHAIC    GR^CO-EGYPTIAN    VASE. 

(Tell  Defenneh.) 
From  a  drawing  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.* 


*For  these  three  illustrations  of  vases,  see  Plates  i.,xxvii.,  and  xxviii., 
Tanis,  Part  II.,  by  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  Trubner,  1887. 


184 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


Apollo  at  Naukratis,  which  is  dated  by  Mr.  Petrie  at  666  B.C. 
to  640  B.C. 

In  this  piece  of  necking,  which  belonged  to  one  of  the  lime- 
stone columns,  we  at 
once  recognize  the  lotus- 
and-bud  pattern  of  the 
second  Defenneh  vase, 
which  may  be  ascribed 
to  about  650  B.C.  or  640 
B.C.  The  vase  and  the 
temple,  if  not  actually 
contemporaneous,  fall, 
therefore,  within  about 
ten  years  of  the  same 
date ;  and  both  are  dec- 
orated with  a  design  di- 
rectly borrowed  from 
the  lotus  pattern  of 
Egyptian  art.  This  de- 
sign is  none  other  than 
the  so-called  "egg-and- 
dart"  pattern  of  Greek 
architecture. 

I  will  cite  but  one 
more  instance  of  the  uses 
to  which  Greek  crafts- 
men adapted  this  well-worn  subject.  At  Daphnse  there 
would  seem  to  have  been  a  busy  trade  in  jewellery  as  well 
as  in  pottery,  and  the  jewellers  were  no  less  ready  than 
the  potters  to  seize  upon  the  national  flower-subject.  In- 
numerable scraps  of  fine  goldsmiths'  work,  such  as  amu- 
lets and  parts  of  ear-rings,  chains,  and  the  like,  were  found 
by  Mr.  Petrie's  Arabs  in  the  ruins  of  the  town ;  but  by  far 
the  most  striking  object  of  this  class  was  discovered  in  a 
corner  of  the  great  camp,  where  it  had  probably  been  buried 
when  the  palace -fort  was  sacked  and  burned.  This  very 
precious  and  beautiful  relic  is  a  tray-handle  in  solid  gold, 


SKETCH   OF   LOTUS-AND-BtJD   PATTERN 

(i.  e.  "Egg-and-Dart"),  from  a  fragment  of 
necking  from  archaic  Temple  of  Apollo, 
Naukratis. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.  185 

showing  a  new  variety  of  lotus  pattern,  the  petals  being  ar- 
ranged in  an  elongated  form, 
issuing  from  voluted  calyx- 
leaves.  Here  we  identify  the 
original  of  the  supposed  "  pal- 
mette  "  motive.  It  is  also  im- 
portant to  note  the  identity 
of  these  voluted  calyx -leaves 
with  the  bas-relief  calyx  cap- 
itals from  Karnak  which  gave 
the  derivation  of  the  Ionic  vo- 
lute.* This  exquisite  handle 
was  originally  inlaid  with  col- 
ored glass,  or  stones ;  the  body 
of  the  lotus  being  cast,  and  the 
dividing  ribs  for  holding  the 
inlaying  being  soldered  on. 

This  very  brief  and  inade- 
quate sketch  may  serve  to  con- 
vey a  general  idea  of  the  im- 
portant part  played  by  the 
Egyptian  lotus  in  Greek  deco- 
rative art,  from  its  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  Orchomenos 


GOLD   HANDLE    OF   A   TRAY. 


ceiling  down  to  the  time  when 
the  Greeks  obtained  a  perma- 
nent footing  in  the  Delta. 
Thenceforth,  whether  issuing 
from  the  workshops  of  Naukra- 
tis  or  multiplied  in  the  studios 
of  Hellas,  the  time-honored  lily 

of  the  Nile  not  only  continued  to  be  the  stock,  motive  of  all 
floral  decoration  upon  Greek  vases,  but  held  its  place  as  a 
leading  motive  for  architectural  ornament.  It  was  repro- 


Found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Greek  camp 
at  Tell  Defenneh.  The  two  pendant 
straps,  which  passed  under  the  tray, 
are  also  of  solid  gold.  From  the 
three  bands  out  of  which  the  calyx 
springs  to  the  top  of  the  handle 
measures  2.95  inches  (.075  metres). 


*  See  third  example  in  illustration  of  "  The  Conventional  Lotus  in  Egyp- 
tian Art." 


186  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

duced  in  the  painted  vases  of  Khodes  and  Cyprus ;  it  blos- 
somed in  ordered  beauty  along  the  entablature  of  the  Erec- 
theum ;  as  an  anthemion,  it  crowned  the  pediment  of  the 
Parthenon ;  and  it  enriched  the  prize  vases  awarded  to  vic- 
tors in  the  Panathenaic  games.  Professor  Alan  Marquand, 
whose  voice  in  matters  of  Greek  archeology  is  second  in  au- 
thority to  none,  is  even  of  opinion  that  the  Corinthian  capi- 
tal is  of  lotus  derivation. 

As  regards  the  exclusive  employment  of  the  lotus  motive 
in  Greek  ceramic  art,  we  marvel  at  the  ingenuity  with  which 
the  Hellenic  vase -painter  varied,  played  with,  and  adapted 
this  one  subject ;  but  far  more  extraordinary  is  the  poverty 
of  invention  which  allowed  him  to  remain  forever  content  to 
execute  only  variations,  however  ingenious,  upon  the  one  in- 
variable theme. 

The  Greeks  borrowed  many  things  from  Egypt  besides 
the  lotus.  From  the  Fields  of  "AaMu"  in  the  realm  of  Osi- 
ris, where  the  pure-souled  Egyptian  steered  his  papyrus  bark 
amid  the  sunny  islands  of  a  waveless  sea,  the  Greeks  bor- 
rowed their  Elysian  Fields  and  their  Islands  of  the  Blest. 

The  child-god  Horus,  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  depicted  as  an 
infant  with  his  finger  in  his  mouth,  became  the  Greek  God 
of  Silence,  with  his  finger  on  his  lip ;  and  " Hor-pa-Mroti" 
"  Hor-the-child,"  was  transformed  into  Harpocrates. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  such  instances,  were  it  not 
that  my  present  inquiry  is  directed  to  the  sources  of  Greek 
art,  and  not  to  the  sources  of  Greek  religious  thought. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  one  conception  involves  the  other ; 
and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  Greek,  as  a  rule,  entirely  mis- 
understands the  Egyptian  idea. 

According  to  old  Egyptian  belief,  for  instance,  the  living 
man  consisted  of  a  Body,  a  Soul,  an  Intelligence,  a  Name,  a 
Shadow,  and  a  Ka,  which  last  I  have  elsewhere  ventured  to 
interpret  as  the  Yital  Principle.*  He  died,  and  each  of  these 


*  See  chap.  iv.,"The  Origin  of  Portrait  Sculpture  and  the  History  of 
the  Ka." 


THE  BIRTHPLACE   OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.     187 

component  parts  fulfilled  a  different  destiny.  The  Body  was 
embalmed  ;  the  Ka  dwelt  with  the  mummy  in  the  sepul- 
chre; the  Intelligence  fled  back  to  the  immortal  source  of 
light  and  life  ;  the  Name  and  the  Shadow  awaited  reunion 
with  the  Body  in  a  state  of  final  immortality  ;  and  the  Soul, 
or  "£a"  represented  as  a  human-headed  hawk,  fluttered  to 
and  fro  between  this  world  and  the  next,  occasionally  visit- 
ing and  comforting  the  mummy  in  its  tomb.  These  visits  of 
the  Soul  to  the  Body  are  frequently  represented  in  Egyptian 
tomb-paintings,  and  in  il- 
lustrations to  the  Book  of 
the  Dead',  as,  for  example, 
in  this  vignette  to  the 
eighty  -  ninth  chapter  of 
that  famous  collection  of 
prayers  and  invocations 
which  has  been  called  — 
not  too  correctly  —  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  Bible. 

The  mummy  lies  on  the 
bier,  attended  by  Anubis, 
the  jackal-headed  god  of 
embalmment.  The  Soul, 
grasping  in  one  hand  a 
little  sail,  the  emblem  of 
breath,  in  the  other  hand 


THE    MUMMY    AND   THE   "  BA." 

From  a  vignette  in  "  The  Book  of  the 
Dead." 


the  "araM,"  or  emblem  of 

Life,  hovers  over  the  face  of  the  corpse.  Now  this  Soul,  this 
"  Ba"  is  a  loving  visitant  to  the  dead  man.  It  brings  a 
breath  of  the  sweet  north  wind,  and  the  cheering  hope  of 
immortality  in  the  sunny  Fields  of  Aahlu.  The  Greeks,  how- 
ever, misapprehending  its  nature  and  functions,  conceived  of 
it  as  a  malevolent  emissary  of  the  gods,  and  converted  it  into 
the  Harpy.  We  have  next  the  Greek  conception  of  a  Harpy, 
from  a  fragment  of  early  Greek  painted  ware  found  at 
Daphnae.  But  we  have  a  still  finer  example  in  the  illustra- 
tion reproduced  from  the  famous  Harpy-Tomb  in  the  British 


188 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


GREEK    HARPY. 


From  a  fragment  of  painted  ware.     Tell 
Defenneh.     650  B.C. 


Museum.  The  Harpy  is  car- 
rying off  one  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  Pandarus.  She  wears 
a  fillet  and  pendant  curls, 
and  besides  the  claws  of  a 
bird,  she  has  human  arms 
like  the  Egyptian  "  Ba," 
wherewith  to  clasp  her  prey. 
The  monument  from  which 
this  group  is  copied  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  Charles  Fel- 
lows at  Xanthus,  in  Lycia, 
and  it  dates  from  about  five 
hundred  and  forty  years  be- 
fore our  era.  It  is  more  re- 
cent, that  is  to  say,  by  about 

a  century,  than  the  painted  potsherd  of  the  preceding  illus- 
tration. 

Not  less  interesting  than 
the  self-evident  connection 
between  the  Greek  Harpy 
and  the  Egyptian  "  Ba  "  is 
the  fact  that  this  Harpy- 
tomb  is  the  work  of  Lycian 
artists ;  for  the  Lycians,  or 
"Leku,"  as  we  have  already 
seen,  had  been  brought  into 
close  contact  with  Egypt 
as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
Nineteenth  Dynasty,  hav- 
ing been  among  those  very 
nations  which  allied  them- 
selves with  the  Hittites 
against  Kameses  II.  and 
with  the  Libyans  against 
Meneptah.  HARPT 

Content     to    Convert  From  the  Harpy-Tomb  of  Xantbus. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE   ART.     189 

the  gentle  bird-soul  of  the  Egyptians  into  a  Harpy,  the  later 
Greeks  went  yet  further,  and  transformed  it  into  a  Siren. 

The  illustration  is  from  a  vase  in  the  British  Museum,  and  it 
may  be  about  one  hundred,  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  years 
later  than  the  Xanthian  tomb.  The  scene  shows  Odysseus 


ODYSSEUS    AND    THE    SIRENS. 

From  a  vase  in  the  British  Museum. 


passing  the  Sirens.  He  is  bound  to  the  mast  of  his  galley, 
which  glides  between  two  rocks,  on  each  of  which  perches  a 
Siren.  A  third  Siren  hovers  over  the  rowers.  All  three 
wear  the  fillet  and  pendant  curl  of  the  Harpy  of  the  Lycian 
tomb — that  same  pendant  curl  which  is  worn  by  the  "  Hane- 
bu "  woman,  sculptured  nearly  a  thousand  years  before  on 
the  pylon  of  Pharaoh  Horemheb  at  Karnak.* 

The  question  of  archaic  Greek  figure-sculpture,  and  its 
unquestioned  derivation  from  Egyptian  sources,  is  so  wide 
and  far-reaching  that  it  would  demand,  not  a  chapter,  but  a 
volume.  It  is  far  too  complex  for  a  rapid  survey.  The 
Egyptian  character  of  all  very  early  Greek  statuary  may, 

*  See  Page  161. 


190 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


however,  be  at  once  recognized  by  any  observant  visitor 

to  the  British  Mu- 
seum, the  Louvre,  the 
Berlin  Museum,  or 
the  Glyptotheca  of 
Munich.  He  needs 
but  to  walk  from 
the  galleries  contain- 
ing the  Egyptian  col- 
lections into  the  gal- 
leries assigned  to  the 
archaic  Greek  mar- 
bles, and  the  evidence 
will  be  before  his 
eyes.  In  the  Muse- 
um of  Athens  he  wi\\ 
see  the  archaic  Apol- 
lo of  Thera ;  in  the 
British  Museum,  the 
Strangford  Apollo, 
and  in  the  Glypto- 
theca of  Munich  the 
Apollo  of  Tenea,  to 
say  nothing  of  other 
examples  in  which 
the  general  propor- 
tions and  treatment 
are  distinctly  Egyp- 
tian. The  Strangford 
Apollo,  the  Apollo  of 
Thera,  and  the  Apol- 
lo of  Tenea,  are  even 
represented  in  the 
canonical,  or  "hier- 
atic" attitude,  with 

clenched  hands,  and  arms  straightened  to  the  sides,  which 

stamps  all  Egyptian  figure-sculpture  in  stone. 


THE  ARCHAIC  APOLLO  OF  THERA. 

In  the  National  Museum,  Athens. 


THE  BIRTHPLACE  OF  GREEK  DECORATIVE  ART.   191 

I  should  add  that,  among  the  numerous  fragments  of  vot- 
ive sculpture  discovered  by  Mr.  Petrie  in  the  ruins  of  the 
second  temple  of  Apollo  at  Naukratis,  there  was  found  a 
well-executed  torso  of  an  archaic  Apollo  *  in  this  attitude ; 
thus  demonstrating  the  starting-point  of  Grseco-Egyptian 
figure-sculpture  on  Egyptian  soil. 

We  have  now  followed  the  footsteps  of  our  prehistoric 
Greek  from  the  moment  when  he  first 
emerges  from  primeval  darkness,  to  the 
hour  of  his  entry  upon  the  stage  of  his- 
tory.   That  is  to  say,  from  a  period  some 
seventeen  centuries  earlier  than  the  ac- 
cepted date   of   the  "Iliad,"   to  a  time 
when  that  immortal  poem  had  been  cur- 
rent for  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years.     We  have  traced  the  Dardaneans 
to  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III.,  thus  prov- 
ing the  existence  of  at  least  one  impor- 
tant Hellenic  tradition  at  an  epoch  eight 
hundred  years  earlier  than  its  first  ap- 
pearance  in   Homer.     And,  further,  we 
have  identified  those  "  shining  savages," 
the  well-greaved  Achaeans,  with  the  armored  warriors  of  the 
West  who  fought  and  fell  with  the  Libyan  host  but  a  few  years, 
probably,  before  the  Children  of  Israel  went  forth  out  of  the 
House  of  Bondage.     Thus  far,  our  facts  are  drawn  from 
Egyptian  sources.     Passing  on  thence  to  Greek  sources,  and 
to  the  tangible  results  of  recent  explorations,  we  have  beheld 
the  colonization  of  Daphnae  and  Kaukratis,  and  followed  the 
evolution  of  Greek  from  Egyptian  art.     We  have  traced  the 
Doric  shaft,  and  the  elaborate  ceiling  pattern  of  Orchomenos 
to  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hasan ;  and  we  have  indentified  the 
Ionic  capital,  the  familiar  honeysuckle  pattern,  and  all  the 

*  This  important  fragmeut  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 
United  States  of  America.and  its  close  relationship  to  the  Strangford.Tenean, 
and  Tlieran  Apollos,  has  been  recognized  by  Mr.  Robinson  (curator),  in  his 
very  interesting  and  able  report  to  the  Trustees  for  the  year  1889. 


THE  ARCHAIC  APOLLO  OF 
NAUKRATIS. 


192  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

floral  decorative  motives  of  Greek  ceramic  art  with  the  lotus 
of  the  Nile. 

It  is  such  results  as  these  which  unite  the  Orientalist  and 
the  Classical  scholar  in  a  bond  of  brotherhood  which  had 
not  even  begun  to  exist  a  few  years  ago,  and  which  I  believe 
and  hope  will  never,  and  can  never,  be  dissolved. 


FEMALE    WINGED    SPHINX    OF    GREEK    ART. 

(From  a  fragment  of  Daplmaean  pottery.) 


YI. 

THE   LITERATURE   AND   RELIGION    OF 
ANCIENT   EGYPT. 

THAT  the  first  people  who  possessed  letters  in  the  literal 
sense  should  also  be  the  first  people  to  possess  letters  in  the 
literary  sense,  is  no  more  than  we  should  expect.  Not,  in- 
deed, that  the  possession  of  an  alphabet  necessarily  implies 
literary  activity  on  the  part  of  those  who  possess  it.  The 
Romans  engraved  their  codes  on  tablets  of  stone  and  brass, 
and  sculptured  inscriptions  on  their  public  buildings,  for  cen- 
turies before  they  wrote  histories  and  dramas,  odes  and  sa- 
tires. The  Oscans,  the  Etruscans,  and  other  early  nations  of 
Italy,  never,  so  far  as  we  know,  got  beyond  mere  inscriptions. 
Even  the  Greeks  of  the  ^Egean,  as  we  are  now  just  begin- 
ning to  find  out,  were  in  possession  of  the  Cadmaean  alpha- 
bet some  five  or  six  centuries  before  the  time  of  Homer ;  and 
yet  we  have  no  evidence  that  the  Iliad  was  committed  to 
writing  earlier  than  some  four  hundred  years  after  the  death 
of  the  poet.  Literature  is,  in  fact,  the  fruit  of  leisure.  Na- 
tions which  are  going  through  the  struggle  for  existence  call 
for  soldiers,  not  scribes.  The  bard,  the  rhapsodist,  the  ex- 
temporaneous singer  of  war -chants  and  dirges,  is  the  only 
representative  of  literature  at  that  early  stage  in  the  history 
of  a  people;  and  it  is  not  till  the  arts  of  peace  have  taken 
their  place  side  by  side  with  the  arts  of  Avar,  that  poems  are 
written,  not  sung — that  histories  are  recorded  with  the  pen, 

not  carved  out  by  the  sword. 
13 


194  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

But  when  we  are  dealing  with  the  origin  and  evolution  of 
national  literatures,  there  is  yet  another  factor  to  be  taken 
into  the  account ;  namely,  the  possession  of  a  cheap  and  con- 
venient material  upon  which  to  write.  This  is  a  very  com- 
monplace and  vulgar  necessity  ;  yet  it  is  one  of  paramount 
importance.  So  long  as  stone  and  metal  are  the  only  availa- 
ble substances,  so  long  will  they  be  used  for  inscriptions  and 
state  documents  only.  It  is  not  till  papyrus,  and  parchment, 
and  finally  paper,  become  current  articles  of  commerce,  that 
writing  as  a  career  or  a  recreation  is  even  possible.  Without 
papyrus  or  parchment,  we  should  never  have  had  a  literature 
of  Egypt,  Greece,  or  Rome.  Without  paper,  we  could  never 
have  had  the  magnificent  literary  efflorescence  of  the  Renais- 
sance. Fancy  Anacreon  and  Sappho,  Martial  and  Horace, 
laboriously  scratching  their  poems  on  tablets  of  limestone,  or 
plates  of  bronze !  How  the  perfume  of  the  roses  and  the 
sting  of  the  epigrams  and  the  aroma  of  the  Sabine  wine 
would  have  evaporated  under  such  a  process ! 

So  far  as  we  know,  the  people  of  ancient  Egypt  had  to 
make  no  struggle  for  existence  at  the  outset  of  their  career. 
Hemmed  in  between  two  vast  and  pathless  deserts,  their  fer- 
tile valley  was  so  strongly  fortified  by  nature  herself  that 
they  had  little  cause  to  fear  danger  from  without.  It  is  not,  in 
fact,  till  thirteen  royal  dynasties,  comprising  about  two  hun- 
dred kings,  have  passed  in  shadowy  succession  across  the  stage 
of  Egyptian  history,  that  we  hear  of  the  Hyksos  invasion. 

The  Egyptians  of  the  first  twelve  dynasties,  and,  indeed, 
the  bulk  of  the  nation  at  all  times,  were  a  pastoral  and 
peaceful  people,  well  content  with  their  lot  in  this  life,  and 
much  occupied  with  preparations  for  the  next.  They  were 
naturally  averse  to  soldiering,  and  the  armies  of  the  great 
military  Pharaohs  of  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  dynas- 
ties were  largely  composed  of  foreign  auxiliaries.  What  the 
native-born  Egyptian  most  dearly  loved  was  to  cultivate  his 
paternal  acres,  to  meditate  on  morals  and  religion,  and  to 
prepare  a  splendid  tomb  for  his  mummy  when  the  inevitable 
summons  should  come. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     195 

And  he  not  only  loved  meditation,  but  he  loved  to  record 
his  meditations  in  writing,  for  the  benefit  of  posterity. 

How  early  the  Egyptians  began  to  cut  and  press  the  stalks 
of  the  papyrus  plant  in  order  to  make  a  material  for  the  use 
of  the  scribe,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  But  we  know  that  ma- 
terial to  have  been  already  employed  for  literary  purposes  in 
the  time  of  the  Third  Dynasty ;  that  is  to  say,  some  three 
thousand  eight  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
There  is  at  this  present  time,  in  the  archives  of  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  of  Paris,  a  papyrus  written  by  a  scribe  of 
the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  which  contains  copies  of  two  much 
more  ancient  documents,  one  dating  from  the  Third,  and 
one  from  the  Sixth  Dynasty.  This  most  precious  document 
(known  as  the  Prisse  Papyrus)  is  the  only  Eleventh  Dynasty 
papyrus  yet  discovered.  It  has  been  well  styled  "  the  old- 
est book  in  the  world  ;"(49)  and  it  is,  at  all  events,  the  oldest 
papyrus  known. 

When  I  say  that  it  is  the  oldest  papyrus  known,  it  is  not 
to  be  inferred  that  the  Prisse  Papyrus  is  the  oldest  specimen 
of  Egyptian  writing  yet  discovered.  If  we  turn  to  inscrip- 
tions cut  in  stone — as,  for  instance,  to  the  Fourth  Dynasty 
tombs  of  Ghizeh,  which  are  contemporary  with  the  Great 
Pyramid,  or  to  the  famous  Second  Dynasty  tablet  of  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  in  Oxford — we  can  point  to  inscriptions 
dating  from  4000  B.C.  and  4200  B.C.  But  stone  -  cut  inscrip- 
tions, even  when  they  run  to  a  considerable  length,  are  not 
what  we  naturally  classify  under  the  head  of  literature. 
"When  we  speak  of  the  literature  of  a  nation,  we  are  not 
thinking  of  inscriptions  graven  on  obelisks  and  triumphal 
arches.  We  mean  such  literature  as  may  be  stored  in  a  li- 
brary and  possessed  by  individuals.  In  a  word,  we  mean 
books — books,  whether  in  the  form  of  clay  cylinders,  of  pa- 
pyrus rolls,  or  any  other  portable  material. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  first  people  of  the  ancient  world 
who  had  a  literature  of  this  kind :  who  wrote  books,  and  read 
books ;  who  possessed  books,  and  loved  them.  And  their 
literature,  which  grew,  and  flourished,  and  decayed  with 


10G  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

the  language  in  which  it  was  written,  was  of  the  most  va- 
ried character,  scientific,  secular,  and  religious.  It  comprised 
moral  and  educational  treatises ;  state-papers ;  works  on  ge- 
ometrv,  medicine,  astronomy,  and  magic ;  travels,  tales,  fables, 
heroic  poems,  love-songs,  and  essays  in  the  form  of  letters ; 
,hymns,  dirges,  rituals ;  and  last,  not  least,  that  extraordinary 
collection  of  prayers,  invocations,  and  religious  formulae 
known  as  The  Book  of  the  Dead.  Some  of  these  writings 
are  older  than  the  pyramids ;  some  are  as  recent  as  the  time 
when  Egypt  had  fallen  from  her  high  estate  and  become  a 
Roman  province.  Between  these  two  extremes  lie  more  than 
five  thousand  years.  Of  this  immense  body  of  literature  we 
possess  only  the  scattered  wrecks — mere  "flotsam  and  jet- 
sam," left  stranded  on  the  shores  of  Time.  Even  these  dis- 
jecta membra,  though  they  represent  so  small  a  proportion 
of  the  whole,  far  exceed  in  mere  bulk  all  that  remains  to  us 
of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks.  Every  year,  moreover,  adds 
to  our  wealth.  No  less  than  a  dozen  papyri  of  the  remote 
Twelfth  Dynasty  period  were  found  by  Mr.  Petrie  in  the 
season  of  1888-1889  among  the  ruins  of  an  obscure  little 
town  in  the  Fayum.  How  precious  these  documents  are 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  only  three  or  four  papyri 
of  that  period  were  previously  known ;  and  that  Abraham's 
visit  to  Egypt  is  believed  to  have  taken  place  during  the 
reign  of  a  Pharaoh  of  this  line.  In  the  course  of  the  same 
season,  and  of  the  previous  season,  Mr.  Petrie  discovered  at 
least  as  many  papyri  of  later  dynasties,  besides  hundreds  of 
fragments  of  Greek  papyri  of  Ptolemaic  and  Roman  times. 
These  consist  chiefly  of  accounts,  deeds,  royal  edicts,  and  the 
like,  not  forgetting  a  magnificent  fragment  containing  near- 
ly the  whole  of  the  Second  Book  of  the  Iliad.  Nor  is 
this  the  first  time  that  Homer  has  been  found  in  Egypt. 
The  three  oldest  Homeric  texts  previously  known  come  from 
the  land  of  the  Pharaohs.  To  those  three  Mr.  Petrie  has 
now  added  a  fourth.(M)  Other  papyri  found  within  the  pres- 
ent century  contain  fragments  of  Sappho,  Anacreon,  Thespis, 
Pindar,  Alcaeus,  and  Timotheus ;  and  all,  without  exception, 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     197 

come  from  graves.  The  great  Homer  Papyrus  of  1889  was 
rolled  up  as  a  pillow  for  the  head  of  its  former  owner ;  and 
its  former  owner  was  a  young  and  apparently  a  beautiful 
woman,  with  little  ivory  teeth,  and  long,  silky  black  hair. 
The  inscription  on  her  coffin  was  illegible,  and  we  are  alike  ig- 
norant of  her  name,  her  nationality,  and  her  history.  She  may 
have  been  an  Egyptian,  but  she  was  more  probably  a  Greek. 
We  only  know  that  she  was  young  and  fair,  and  she  so  loved 
her  Homer  that  those  who  laid  her  in  her  last  resting-place 
buried  her  precious  papyrus  in  her  grave.  That  papyrus  is  now 
among  the  treasures  of  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  and 
all  that  is  preserved  of  its  possessor — her  skull  and  her  lovely 
hair — are  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  London. 

But  we  are  not  now  concerned  with  the  transcripts  of  for- 
eign classics  which  have  been  found  on  Egyptian  soil.  Our 
subject  is  the  native  literature  of  that  ancient  and  wonderful 
people  whose  immemorial  home  was  the  Valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  two  most  important  subjects  in  the  literature  of  a  na- 
tion are,  undoubtedly,  its  history  and  its  religion  ;  and  up  to 
the  present  time  nothing  in  the  shape  of  an  Egyptian  history 
of  Egypt  has  been  found.  We  have  historical  tablets,  histori- 
cal poems,  chronicles  of  campaigns,  lists  of  conquered  cities, 
and  records  of  public  works  sculptured  on  stelae,  written  on 
papyrus,  and  carved  on  the  walls  of  temples  and  tombs.  But 
these  are  the  materials  of  history — the  bricks  and  blocks 
and  beams  with  which  the  historian  builds  up  his  structure. 
Brugsch,  in  his  Geschichte  Aegyptens  Unter  Den  Pharaonen, 
has  brought  together  all  such  documents  as  were  known  at  the 
time  when  he  wrote  it ;  but  no  one  can  read  that  excellent 
work  without  perceiving  that  it  is  but  a  collection  of  inscrip- 
tions, and  not  a  consecutive  narrative.  Whole  reigns  are  some- 
times represented  by  only  a  name  or  a  date ;  whole  dynasties 
are  occasionally  blank.  This  is  no  fault  of  the  learned  author. 
It  simply  means  that  no  monuments  of  those  times  have 
been  discovered.  Yet  we  cannot  doubt  that  histories  of 
Egypt  were  written  at  various  periods  by  qualified  scholars. 
We  know  of  one  only — the  work  of  Manetho,  who  was  High 


198  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Priest  of  Ra,  and  Keeper  of  the  Archives  in  the  Great 
Temple  of  Heliopolis,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia, 
some  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  our  era.  Manetho, 
though  a  true-born  Egyptian,  wrote  his  history  in  Greek, 
which  was  the  native  tongue  of  the  Ptolemies  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court.  He  wrote  it,  moreover,  by  the  royal 
command.  Now,  the  Sacred  College  of  Heliopolis  was  the 
most  ancient  home  of  learning  in  Egypt.  Its  foundation 
dated  back  to  the  ages  before  history ;  the  oldest  fragments 
embedded  in  The  Book  of  the  Dead  being  of  Heliopolitan-  ori- 
gin. Manetho  had,  therefore,  the  most  venerable,  and  prob- 
ably the  largest,  library  in  Egypt  at  his  command ;  and  what- 
ever histories  may  have  been  written  before  his  time,  we  may 
be  very  certain  that  his  was  the  latest  and  the  best.  But  of 
that  precious  work,  not  a  single  copy  has  come  down  to  our 
time.  A  few  invaluable  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  form 
of  quotations  by  later  writers — by  Josephus,  for  instance,  in 
his  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  by  George  the  Syncellus,  by  Eu- 
sebius  —  and  by  various  chronologers ;  but  the  work  itself 
has  perished  with  the  libraries  in  which  it  was  treasured 
and  the  scholars  by  whom  it  was  studied. 

Still,  there  is  always  room  for  hope  in  Egypt ;  and  it  may 
yet  be  reserved  for  some  fortunate  explorer  to  discover  the 
grave  of  a  long -forgotten  scribe  whose  head  shall  be  pil- 
lowed, not  on  a  transcript  of  Homer,  but  upon  a  copy  of  the 
lost  History  of  Manetho. 

Of  the  numerous  historic  documents  which  remain  to  us, 
the  three  most  interesting  are  perhaps  the  celebrated  "  Chant 
of  Victory"  of  King  Thothmes  III.,  the  "Epic  of  Pentaur," 
and  the  great  international  treaty  between  Rameses  II.  and 
the  allied  Princes  of  Syria. 

The  first  of  these  is  engraved  on  a  large  black  granite 
tablet  found  in  the  Great  Temple  of  Karnak,  at  Thebes.  It 
records  the  conquests  of  Thothmes  III.;  and  Thothmes  III. 
was  the  Alexander  of  ancient  Egypt.  He  was  possessed  by 
the  same  insatiable  thirst  for  conquest,  by  the  same  storm- 
driven  restlessness.  Ever  on  the  march  and  ever  victorious, 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     199 

he  conquered  the  known  world  of  his  time.  It  was  his  mag- 
nificent boast  that  he  planted  the  frontiers  of  Egypt  where 
he  pleased ;  and  he  did  so.  Southward  as  far,  apparently,  as 
the  great  equatorial  lakes  which  have  been  rediscovered  in 
our  time ;  northward  to  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean  and  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Euphrates ;  over  Syria  and  Sinai,  Meso- 
potamia and  Arabia  in  the  east ;  over  Libya  and  the  North 
African  coast  as  far  as  Scherschell  in  Algeria  on  the  west,  he 
carried  fire  and  sword,  and  the  terror  of  the  Egyptian  name. 
He  was  by  far  the  greatest  warrior-king  of  Egyptian  history, 
and  his  "  Chant  of  Victory,"  though  rhapsodical  and  Oriental 
in  style,  does  not  exaggerate  the  facts.  This  chant,  written 
by  the  laureate  of  the  day,  is  one  of  the  finest  example  ex- 
tant of  the  poetry  of  ancient  Egypt.  For  the  Egyptians,  not- 
withstanding the  poverty  of  their  grammar  and  the  cum- 
brous structure  of  their  language,  had  poetry,  and  poetry  of 
a  very  high  order.  It  was  not  like  our  poetry.  It  had 
neither  rhyme  nor  metre;  but  it  had  rhythm.  Like  the 
chants  of  the  Troubadours  and  Trouveres,  it  was  largely  al- 
literative, cadenced,  symmetrical.  It  abounded  in  imagery, 
in  antithesis,  in  parallelisms.  The  same  word,  or  the  same 
phrase,  was  repeated  at  measured  intervals.  In  short,  it  had 
style  and  music ;  and  although  the  old  Egyptian  language  is 
far  more  literally  dead  than  the  languages  of  Greece  and 
Home,  that  music  is  still  faintly  audible  to  the  ears  of  such 
as  care  to  listen  to  its  distant  echo. 

A  two-fold  bas-relief  group  at  the  top  of  the  tablet  of 
Thothmes  III.  represents  the  King  in  adoration  before  Amen- 
Ra ;  and  the  context  shows  the  poem  to  have  been  composed 
in  commemoration  of  the  opening  of  the  Hall  of  Columns 
added  by  this  Pharaoh  to  the  Temple  of  Amen  at  Karnak. 
It  is  the  god  who  speaks.  He  begins  with  a  few  lines  of 
prose ;  thus : 

THE    DISCOURSE    OF    AMEN-RA, 
LORD   OF    THRONES. 

"  Come  unto  me !     Tremble  thou  with  joy,  Oh  my  Son, 


200  PHAROAHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

my  avenger,  Ra-men-Kheper,  endowed  with  life  everlasting ! 
I  am  resplendent  through  thy  love,  and  my  heart  is  dilated 
on  beholding  thy  joyous  entrance  into  my  Temple.  My 
hands  have  endowed  thy  limbs  with  living  strength ;  thy 
perfections  are  pleasant  in  my  sight.  I  am  established  ia 
my  Abode.  I  give  thee  victory  and  power  over  all  the  na- 
tions. I  have  spread  the  fear  of  thee  throughout  all  lands, 
and  thy  terror  unto  the  limits  of  the  four  props  of  heaven. 
It  is  I  who  magnify  the  dread  of  thy  name,  and  the  echo  of 
thy  war-cry  in  the  breasts  of  the  outer  barbarians.  I  stretch 
forth  my  arm,  and  I  seize  the  people  of  Nubia  in  myriads, 
and  the  nations  of  the  North  in  millions,  and  I  bind  them 
for  thee  in  sheaves !  I  have  cast  thine  enemies  under  thy 
sandals,  and  thou  hast  trampled  their  chiefs  under  thine  heel. 
By  my  command,  the  world  in  its  length  and  its  breadth, 
from  East  to  "West  is  thy  throne!  Joyful  of  heart,  thou 
dost  traverse  the  lands  of  all  the  nations,  none  daring  to  op- 
pose thee.  Thou  hast  sailed  the  waters  of  the  great  sea,* 
and  thou  hast  scoured  Mesopotamia  in  victory  and  power. 
I  have  made  the  nations  to  hear  thy  war-cry  in  the  depths 
of  their  caves,  and  I  have  cut  off  the  breath  of  life  from  their 
nostrils.  I  made  their  hearts  to  turn  back  before  thy  vic- 
tories. My  glory  was  on  thy  brow,  dazzling  them,  leading 
them  captive,  burning  them  to  ashes  in  their  settlements. 
Thou  hast  struck  off  the  heads  of  the  Asiatics,  and  their  chil- 
dren cannot  escape  from  thee.  Every  land  illuminated  by 
thy  diadem  is  encircled  by  thy  might ;  and  in  all  the  zone 
of  the  heavens  there  is  not  a  rebel  to  rise  up  against  thee. 
The  enemy  bring  in  their  tribute  on  their  backs,  prostrating 
themselves  before  thee,  their  limbs  trembling  and  their  hearts 
burned  up  within  them." 

And  now  the  god  breaks  suddenly  into  rhythmic  verse : 
"  1.  I  came !    I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  princes  of  Taha.f 

*  Literally  "  the  great  circuit  " — i.e.,  the  Mediterranean  basin, 
f  Tafia;  i.  e.,  Gaza,  according  to  Birch;  but,  according  to  De  Rouge,  the 
coast-land  of  Syria  between  Lebanon  and  the  sea. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     201 

I  cast  them  beneath  thy  feet,  marching  across  their  territo- 
ries. I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  as  a  Lord  of  Light, 
shining  in  their  faces,  even  in  my  own  likeness ! 

"  2.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  nations  of  Asia. 
Thou  hast  reduced  to  captivity  the  chiefs  of  the  Rotennu.* 
I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  in  the  splendor  of  thy 
panoply  of  Avar,  wielding  thy  weapons  and  combating  in  thy 
war-chariot. 

"  3.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  people  of  the 
far  East !  Thou  hast  traversed  the  provinces  of  the  Land  of 
the  Gods,  f  I  made  them  to  behold  thee  like  unto  the  Star 
of  Morning,  shedding  radiance  and  showering  dew ! 

"  4.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  nations  of  the 
West !  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus  have  thee  in  terror.  I  made 
them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  even  as  a  young  Bull,  bold  of 
heart,  horned,  and  unconquerable ! 

"  5.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  dwellers  in  the 
harbors  of  the  coast-lands !  The  shores  of  Maten  $  tremble 
before  thee.  I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  even  as 
the  Crocodile,  the  Lord  of  Terror  of  the  water,  whom  none 
dare  to  encounter. 

"  6.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  those  who  dwell  in 
their  islands !  Those  who  live  in  the  midst  of  the  great  deep 
hear  thy  war-cry  and  tremble.  I  made  them  to  behold  thy 
Majesty  as  an  avenger  who  bestrides  the  back  of  his  victim. 

"  7.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  people  of 
Libya!  The  isles  of  the  Danasans  are  under  the  power  of 
thy  will.  I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  as  a  furious 
Lion,  crouching  over  their  corpses  and  stalking  through  their 
valleys. 

"  8.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  those  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  sea!  The  circuit  of  the  great  waters  lies  within 


*  Rotennu,  a  powerful  nation  of  North  Syria. 

f  The  Land  of  the  Gods  (Tanuter);  a  district  identical,  or  conterminous, 
with  Punt,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 
\  Maten,  identified  by  Maspero  with  Cilicia.and  by  Lenormant  with  Midian. 


202  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

thy  grasp.  I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  as  the  Hawk 
which  hovers  on  high,  beholding  all  things  at  his  pleasure. 

"  9.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  tribes  of  the 
marsh-lands,*  and  to  bind  in  captivity  the  Herusha,f  lords 
of  the  desert  sands.  I  made  them  to  behold  thy  Majesty  as 
the  Jackal  of  the  South,  Lord  of  Swiftness,  who  scours  the 
plains  of  the  upper  and  lower  country. 

"10.  I  came !  I  gave  thee  might  to  fell  the  nations  of  Nu- 
bia, even  to  the  barbarians  of  Pat !  I  made  them  to  behold 
thy  Majesty  like  unto  thy  two  brothers,  Horus  and  Set,  whose 
arms  I  have  united  to  give  thee  power  and  strength." 

The  poem  concludes  with  a  few  lines  of  peroration  in  meas- 
ured prose,  in  which  the  god  approves  the  additions  which 
Thothmes  had  made  to  his  temple.  "  Longer  is  it  and  wider," 
he  says,  "  than  it  has  ever  been  till  now.  Great  is  its  gate- 
way. I  bade  thee  make  it,  and  thou  hast  made  it.  I  am 
content." 

Marietta  wrote  of  this  ancient  Hymn  of  Praise  as  being 
"  redolent  with  the  perfume  of  Oriental  poetry ;"  while 
Brugsch  ranks  it  with  the  heroic  poem  of  Pentaur  and  a  few 
other  similar  compositions,  as  destined  for  ever  to  remain  one 
of  the  representative  specimens  of  ancient  Egyptian  litera- 
ture at  its  finest  period. 

The  poem  of  Pentaur,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  Egyp- 
tian Iliad,  is  in  a  quite  different  style.  It  is  much  longer 
than  the  chant  of  Thothmes.  It  is  full  of  incident  and  dia- 
logue, and  it  recites,  not  a  mere  catalogue  of  victories,  but 
the  events  of  a  single  campaign  and  the  deeds  of  a  single 
hero.  That  hero  is  Rameses  II.,  and  the  campaign  thus  cele- 
brated was  undertaken  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  against 
the  allied  forces  of  Syria  and  Asia  Min6r.  The  coalition  thus 
formed  included  the  vassal  princes  of  Karkhemish,  Kadesh, 


*  By  the  marsh-lands  is  meant  the  swampy  regions  of  the  Eastern  Delta, 
lying  between  the  Phatnitic  and  Pelusiac  mouths  of  the  Nile. 
f  The  Hermha;  i.  e.,  the  desert  tribes. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     203 

Aradus,  and  Kati,  all  tributaries  of  Egypt,  headed  by  the 
prince  of  the  Kheta,  or  Hittites,  with  a  large  Hittite  army, 
and  an  immense  following  of  the  predatory  and  warlike 
Gra3co  -  Asiatic  tribes  of  Mysia,  Lydia,  Pedasos,  and  the 
Troad. 

Rameses  took  the  field  in  person  with  the  flower  of  the 
Egyptian  army,  traversing  the  Land  of  Canaan,  which  still 
remained  loyal,  and  establishing  his  Syrian  headquarters  at 
Shabtun,  a  fortified  town  in  a  small  valley  a  short  distance 
to  the  south-west  of  Kadesh.  Here  he  remained  stationary 
for  a  few  days,  reconnoitring  the  surrounding  country,  and 


CAMP   OF    RAMESES    II.   AT    SHABTUN. 

From  the  Great  Tableau  in  the  Temple  of  Abu-Simbel. 

The  rectangular  space  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  a  row  of  shields  represents 
the  royal  camp.  The  oblong  structure  to  the  right  of  the  centre  is  the  pavil- 
ion of  Rameses;  five  attendants  kneel  before  the  entrance  to  an  inner  apart- 
ment, surmounted  by  a  royal  oval  watched  over  by  winged  genii.  This  represents 
the  sleeping-place  of  the  King.  The  pavilion  appears  to  be  a  movable  structure 
raised  on  arches;  it  was  probably  of  wood,  and  was  constructed  in  such  wise  as  to 
be  easily  taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again.  To  the  left,  the  horses  of  the 
charioteers  are  feeding  in  mangers  and  attended  by  grooms.  Bags  of  fodder  lie  on 
the  ground.  A  blacksmith  with  his  brazier  prepares  to  shoe  a  horse  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  camp.  Elsewhere  we  see  charioteers  dragging  away  empty  chariots,  a 
soldier  mending  a  hoe,  a  man  carrying  a  pair  of  water-buckets  suspended  at  each 
end  of  a  pole  across  his  shoulders;  infantry  and  charioteers  arriving  in  camp;  sol- 
diers squatting  round  a  bowl  at  their  supper;  officers  chastising  lazy  or  recalcitrant 
subordinates,  and  the  like.  Close  above  atid  behind  the  royal  pavilion  there  is  a 
brawl  among  the  king's  officers,  one  of  whom  is  in  the  act  of  being  stabbed.  Just 
below  this  group  a  horse  prepares  to  lie  down,  bending  its  fore-legs  with  a  remark- 
ably natural  action  ;  while  in  the  foreground  to  the  right,  we  see  the  two  Syrian 
spies  being  soundly  bastinadoed,  in  order  to  force  the  truth  from  them.  All  the 
busy  life  of  a  great  camp  i.s  depicted  in  this  wonderful  section  of  the  largest  battle- 
subject  in  the  history  of  art. 


204 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


endeavoring,  but  without  success,  to  learn,  the  whereabouts 
of  the  enemy.  The  latter,  meanwhile,  had  their  spies  out  in 
all  directions,  and  knew  every  movement  of  the  Egyptian 
host.  T\vo  of  these  spies,  being  previously  instructed,  allowed 
themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  King's  scouts.  Introduced  into 
the  royal  presence,  they  prostrated  themselves  before  Pha- 
raoh, declaring  that  they  were  messengers  from  certain  of 
the  Syrian  chiefs,  their  brothers,  who  desired  to  break  their 
pact  with  the  Kheta,  and  to  serve  the  great  King  of  Egypt. 
They  further  added  that  the  Khetan  host,  dreading  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Egyptian  army,  had  retreated  to  beyond  Alep- 
po, forty  leagues  to  the  northward.  Kameses,  believing  their 
story,  then  pushed  confidently  onward,  escorted  only  by  his 
body-guard.  The  bulk  of  his  forces,  consisting  of  the  bri- 
gade of  Amen,  the  brigade  of  Ptah,  and  the  brigade  of  Ra, 
followed  at  some  little  distance ;  the  brigade  of  Sutekh,  which 
apparently  formed  the  reserve,  lingering  far  behind  on  the 
Amorite  frontier. 

Meanwhile  two  more  spies  were  seized,  and  the  suspicions 
of  the  Egyptian  officers  were  aroused.  Being  well  bastina- 
doed, the  Syrians  confessed  to  the  near  neighborhood  of  the 


SYRIAN    SPIES    BASTINADOED    BY    EGYPTIAN    OFFICERS. 

From  the  Great  Tableau  in  the  Temple  of  Abu-Simbel. 

allied  armies,  and  Barneses,  summoning  a  hasty  council  of 
war,  despatched  a  messenger  to  hurry  up  the  brigade  of 
Amen.  At  this  critical  juncture  the  enemy  emerged  from 
his  ambush,  and  by  a  well-executed  flank  movement  inter- 
posed between  Pharaoh  and  his  army.  Thus  surrounded, 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     205 

Rameses,  with  right  royal  and  desperate  valor,  charged  the 
Hittite  war  -  chariots.  Six  times,  with  only  his  household 
troops  at  his  back,  he  broke  their  lines,  spreading  disorder 
and  terror  and  driving  many  into  the  river.  Then,  just  at 
the  right  moment,  one  of  his  tardy  brigades  came  hurrying 
up,  and  forced  the  enemy  to  retreat.  A  pitched  battle  was 
fought  the  next  day,  which  the  Egyptians  claimed  for  a  great 
victory. 

Such  would  appear  to  be  the  plain,  unvarnished  facts.  The 
poet,  however,  takes  some  liberties  with  the  facts,  as  poets 
are  apt  to  do  even  now.  He  abolishes  the  household  troops, 
and  leaves  Rameses  to  fight  the  whole  field  single-handed. 
JSTor  is  the  Deus  ex  machina  wanting  — that  stock  device 
which  the  Greek  dramatists  borrowed  from  Egpytian  mod- 
els. Amen  himself  comes  to  the  aid  of  Pharaoh,  just  as  the 
gods  of  Olympus  do  battle  for  their  favorite  heroes  on  the 
field  of  Troy. 

This  poem  is  certainly  the  most  celebrated  masterpiece  of 
Egyptian  literature;  I  therefore  make  no  apology  for  quoting 
at  some  length  from  the  original.  We  will  take  up  the  nar- 
rative at  that  critical  point  where  the  Hittites  are  about  to 
execute  their  flank  movement,  and  so  isolate  Rameses  from 
his  army. 

"  Now  had  the  vile  Prince  of  Kheta,  and  the  many  nations 
which  were  leagued  with  him,  hidden  themselves  at  the 
north-west  of  the  city  of  Kadesh.  His  Majesty  was  alone ; 
none  else  was  beside  him.  The  brigade  of  Amen  was  ad- 
vancing behind.  The  brigade  of  Ra  followed  the  water- 
course which  lies  to  the  west  of  the  town  of  Shabtun.  The 
brigade  of  Ptah  marched  m  the  centre,  and  the  brigade  of 
Sutekh  took  the  way  bordering  on  the  land  of  the  Amorites.* 

"  Then  the  vile  Prince  of  Kheta  sent  forth  his  bowmen  and 
his  horsemen  and  his  chariots,  and  they  were  as  many  as  the 


*  The  translated  extracts  here  given  are  in  part  from  the  French  of  De 
Rouge  and  Maspero,  and  in  part  from  the  English  version  of  Professor 
Lushington. 


206 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


grains  of  sand  on  the  sea-shore.  Three  men  were  they  on 
each  chariot;  and  with  them  were  all  the  bravest  of  the 
fighting-men  of  the  Kheta,  well  armed  with  all  weapons  for 
the  combat. 

"  They  marched  out  on  the  side  of  the  south  of  Kadesh, 
and  they  charged  the  brigade  of  Ra ;  and  foot  and  horse  of 
King  Rameses  gavre  way  before  them. 

"  Then  came  messengers  to  his  Majesty  with  tidings  of  de- 
feat. And  the  King  arose,  and  grasped  his  weapons  and 
donned  his  armor,  like  unto  Baal,  the  war-god,  in  his  hour  of 
wrath.  And  the  great  horses  of  his  Majesty  came  forth  from 
their  stables,  and  he  put  them  to  their  speed,  and  he  rushed 
upon  the  ranks  of  the  Kheta. 


THE    ROYAL    CHARIOT    AND    GREAT    HORSES    OF    RAMESES     ARE    BROUGHT    ROUND    FROM 

THE    STABLES. 

Four  of  the  King's  spearsmen  and  two  of  his  Sardinian  body-guard  await  his  ap- 
proach.    From  the  Great  Temple  of  Abu-Simbel. 


"  Alone  he  went — none  other  was  beside  him.  And  lo !  he 
was  surrounded  by  two  thousand  five  hundred  chariots ;  his 
retreat  cut  off  by  all  the  fighting-men  of  Aradus,  of  Mysia, 
of  Aleppo,  of  Caria,  of  Kadesh,  and  of  Lycia.  They  were 
three  on  each  chariot,  and  massed  in  one  solid  phalanx." 

Here  the  form  changes,  and  Rameses  breaks  forth  into  an 
impassioned  appeal  to  Amen. 

"  None  of  my  princes  are  with  me,"  he  cries.  "  Not  one 
of  my  generals — not  one  of  my  captains  of  bowmen  or  char- 
iots. My  soldiers  have  abandoned  me — my  horsemen  have 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     207 

fled — there  are  none  to  combat  beside  me !  "Where  art  thou, 
oh  Amen,  my  father  ?  Hath  the  father  forgotten  his  son  ? 
Behold !  have  I  done  aught  without  thee  ?  Have  I  not 
walked  in  thy  ways,  and  waited  on  thy  words?  Have  I 
not  built  thee  temples  of  enduring  stone  ?  Have  I  not  dedi- 
cated to  thee  sacrifices  of  tens  of  thousands  of  oxen,  and  of 
every  rare  and  sweet-scented  wood  ?  Have  I  not  given  thee 
the  whole  world  in  tribute  ?  I  call  upon  thee,  oh  Amen,  my 
father !  I  invoke  thee !  Behold,  I  am  alone,  and  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  earth  are  leagued  against  me !  My  foot-soldiers 
and  my  chariot-men  have  abandoned  me !  I  call,  and  none 
hear  my  voice !  But  Amen  is  more  than  millions  of  archers 
—more  than  hundreds  of  thousands  of  cavalry !  The  might 
of  men  is  as  nothing — Amen  is  greater  than  all !" 

Then,  suddenly,  Rameses  becomes  aware  that  Amen  has 
heard  his  cry — is  near  him — is  leading  him  to  victory. 


RAMESES  II.  SLAYING   THE   ASIATICS  BEFORE  RA,  THE  TUTELARY  DEITY  OF  THE 
GREAT  TEMPLE  OF  ABU-SIMBEL. 


208      PHA.BA.OHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

"Lo!  my  voice  hath  resounded  as  far  as  Hermonthis! 
Amen  comes  to  my  call.  He  gives  me  his  hand — I  shout 
aloud  for  joy,  hearing  his  voice  behind  meS" 

And  no\v  the  god  speaks. 

"  Oh,  Kameses,  I  am  here !  It  is  I,  thy  father !  My  hand 
is  with  thee,  and  I  am  more  to  thee  than  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands. I  am  the  Lord  of  Might,  who  loves  valor.  I  know 
thy  dauntless  heart,  and  I  am  content  with  thee.  Now,  be 
my  will  accomplished." 

Then  Kameses,  inspired  with  the  strength  of  a  god,  bends 
his  terrible  bow  and  rushes  upon  the  enemy.  His  appeal  for 
divine  aid  is  changed  to  a  shout  of  triumph. 

"  Like  Menthu,  I  let  fly  my  arrows  to  right  and  left,  and 
mine  enemies  go  down !  I  am  as  Baal  in  his  wrath !  The 
two  thousand  five  hundred  chariots  which  encompass  me 
are  dashed  to  pieces  under  the  hoofs  of  my  horses.  Not  one 
of  their  warriors  has  raised  his  hand  to  smite  me.  Their 
hearts  die  in  their  breasts — their  limbs  fail — they  can  nei- 
ther hurl  the  javelin,  nor  wield  the  spear.  Headlong  I  drive 
them  to  the  water's  edge !  Headlong  they  plunge,  as  plunges 
the  crocodile!  They  fall  upon  their  faces,  one  above  the 
other, and  I  slay  them  in  the  mass!  ~No  time  have  they  to 
turn  back — no  time  to  look  behind  them !  He  who  falls, 
falls  never  to  rise  again !" 

Then  the  Kheta,  and  the  Kadeshites,  and  the  warriors 
of  Karkhemish  and  Aleppo,  and  the  princes  of  Mysia,  and 
Ilion,and  Lycia,  and  Dardania  turned  and  fled,  crying 
aloud : 

"  It  is  no  man  who  is  in  the  midst  of  us !  It  is  Sutekh  the 
glorious !  It  is  Baal  in  the  flesh !  Alone — alone,  he  slays 
hundreds  of  thousands !  Let  us  fly  for  our  lives !" 

"  And  they  fled ;  and  the  King  pursued  them,  as  he  were 
a  flame  of  fire !" 

The  rest  of  the  poem  is  necessarily  somewhat  of  an  ante- 
climax.  It  tells  how  the  Egyptian  brigades  come  up  towards 
evening,  and  are  filled  with  wonder  as  they  wade  through 
the  blood  of  the  slain,  and  behold  the  field  strewn  with  dead 


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210 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


and  dying.     They  exalt  the  prowess  of  the  King,  who  over- 
whelms them  with  reproaches. 

"  What  will  the  whole  world  say,"  he  asks,  "  when  it  is 
known  that  you  left  your  King  alone,  with  none  to  second 
him? — that  not  a  prince,  not  a  charioteer,  not  a  bowman  was 
there  to  join  his  hand  with  mine  ?  I  fought  alone  !  Alone, 
I  overthrew  millions!  It  was  only  my  good  horses  who 
obeyed  my  hand,  when  I  found  myself  alone  in  the  midst  of 
the  foe.  Yerily,  they  shall  henceforth  eat  their  corn  before 


BRIGADE  OF   INFANTRY    ON    THE    MARCH,  PROTECTKD    BY    CAVALRY. 

From  the  great  Abu-Simbel  Tableau. 


me  daily  in  my  royal  palace,  for  they  alone  were  with  me  in 
the  hour  of  danger." 

The  next  day  at  sunrise  Eameses  assembles  his  forces,  and, 
according  to  the  chronicler,  achieves  a  signal  victory,  fol- 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     211 

lowed  by  the  submission  of  the  Prince  of  Kbeta  and  the  con- 
clusion of  a  treaty  of  peace.  This  treaty  was  shortly  con- 
firmed by  the  marriage  of  Rameses  with  a  Khetan  princess ; 
and  the  friendship  thus  cemented  continued  unbroken  through- 
out the  rest  of  his  long  reign. 

The  foregoing  passages  are  much  abridged,  but  they  fairly 
represent  the  fervent  diction  and  the  dramatic  action  of  this 
celebrated  poem.  The  style  is  singularly  capricious,  narra- 
tive and  dialogue  succeeding  each  other  according  to  the  ex- 
igencies of  the  situation.  These  changes  are  unmarked  by 
any  of  those  devices  whereby  the  modern  writer  assists  his 
reader;  they  must  therefore  have  been  emphasized  by  the 
reciter. 

To  use  a  very  modern  word  in  connection  with  a  very  an- 
cient composition,  one  might  say  that  Rameses  "  published  " 
this  poem  in  a  most  costly  manner,  with  magnificent  illustra- 


EGYPTIAN    ATTACK    ON    HITTITE    CHARIOT. 

From  the  great  Abu-Simbel  Tableau. 


tions.  And  he  did  so  upon  a  scale  which  puts  our  modern 
publishing  houses  to  shame.  His  imperial  edition  was  issued 
on  sculptured  stone,  and  illustrated  with  bas-relief  subjects 
gorgeously  colored  by  hand.  Four  more  or  less  perfect  cop- 
ies of  this  edition  have  survived  the  wreck  of  ages,  and  we 
know  not  how  many  have  perished.  These  four  are  carved 
on  the  pylon  walls  of  the  Great  Temples  of  Luxor  and  the 
Ramesseum  at  Thebes,  on  a  wall  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Aby- 
dos,  and  in  the  main  hall  of  the  great  rock-cut  Temple  of 
Abu-Simbel  in  Nubia.  One  of  the  tableaux  in  this  hall  is 
fifty  feet  in  length  by  about  forty  feet  in  height,  and  it  con- 
tains many  thousands  of  figures.  A  fifth  copy  is  also  graven 


212  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

without  illustrations  on  a  side- wall  of  the  Great  Temple  of 
Karnak ;  and  some  remains  of  a  great  battle-scene  with  de- 
faced inscriptions  appear  to  belong  to  another  copy,  on  one 
of  the  Avails  of  the  Temple  of  Derr,  in  Nubia.  In  these 
temple-copies,  the  poem  is  sculptured  in  hieroglyphs. 

But  there  were  also  popular  editions  of  this  immortal  poem 
— copies  written  on  papyrus  by  professional  scribes ;  and  one 
of  these  copies  is  in  the  British  Museum,  a  fragment  of  the 
beginning  of  the  same  copy  being  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Louvre.  The  British  Museum  document  contains  one  hun- 
dred and  twelve  lines  of  very  fine  hieratic  writing,  and  the 
last  page  ends  with  a  formal  statement  that  it  was  "  written 
in  the  year  VII.,  the  month  Payni,  in  the  reign  of  King  Ra- 
meses  Mer-Amen,  Giver  of  Life  eternal  like  unto  Ra,  his  fa- 
ther. For  the  chief  librarian  of  the  royal  archives  ...  by  the 
Iloyal  Scribe,  Pentaur." 

Whether  this  Pentaur  was,  as  it  is  generally  supposed,  the 


FAC-SIMILK    OF    THE    OPENING    LINES    OF    THE    POEM    OF    PENTACR. 

From  the  original  Hieratic  papyrus  in  the  British  Museum. 


LITERATURE  AND   RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT   EGYPT.     213 


author  of  the  poem,  or  but  a  copyist  in  the  employment  of 
the  King's  principal  librarian,  is  perhaps  an  open  question. 
As,  however,  the  colophon  is  unmistakably  clear  as  to  date, 
and  as  that  date  is  but  two  years  subsequent  to  the  events 
narrated  in  the  poem, 
we  may  at  least  as- 
sume that  the  papy- 
rus is  a  contemporary 
document.  ( 61 ) 

It  is  from  the  huge 
battle-piece  sculpt- 
ured on  the  north  wall 
of  the  great  hall  at 
Abu-Simbel  that  we 
derive  many  minor 
details  not  recorded 
by  the  poet.  In  this 
elaborate  composition 
the  events  of  the  first 
and  second  engage- 
ments are  combined 
in  a  single  subject.  In 
one  -place  we  see  Ra- 
meses,  single-handed, 

rushing  upon  the  foe  in  his  chariot,  and  driving  them  head- 
long into  the  river  ;  in  another  we  behold  the  pitched  battle 
of  the  following  morning.  Every  circumstance  of  that  mo- 
mentous fight  is  shown  with  the  most  painstaking  fidelity. 
The  chariots  start  first,  an  officer  of  bowmen  leading  the 
way  on  foot. 


THK    MELI^E    OF    CHARIOTS. 

From  the  great  Abu-Simbel  Tableau. 


WAR-CHARIOTS    SETTINO    OUT. 

From  the  great  Abu-Simbel  Tableau. 


214: 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


Next  follow  the  infantry,  marching  in  a  solid  square,  and 
protected,  van,  flank,  and  rear,  by  a  force  of  chariots.  The 
infantry  are  armed  with  only  spear  and  shield.  This  is  a  very 
interesting  section  of  the  great  tableau,  as  it  shows  us  the 
Egyptian  order  of  battle. 

Next  comes  the  encounter  with  the  enemy — the  shock  of 
chariots — the  overthrow  of  the  Hittite  warriors.  Part  of  this 
h'ght  is  arbitrarily  introduced  into  that  section  of  the  subject 
where  liameses  is  performing  his  great  feat  of  arms  on  the 


AFTER    THE    BATTLE. 

From  the  great  Abu-Simbel  Tableau.  In  this  section  of  the  great  tableau  theEgvp- 
tian  artist  depicts  the  incidents  of  the  battle-field  after  the  victory  is  won.  We 
seethe  charioteers  and  infantry  returning  in  order,  and  the  enemy's  cattle  being 
driven  to  the  camp.  Long  files  of  prisoners  are  brought  along,  some  tied  to- 
gether by  the  neck,  others  with  their  arms  bound  behind  their  backs.  In  the 
lowest  register  a  captain  of  archers  brings  in  a  string  of  eight  captives,  and  is 
greeted  by  his  comrades  with  acclamations.  In  the  second  register,  to  the  right, 
Rameses  sits  in  his  chariot  with  his  back  to  the  horses  and  witnesses  the  count- 
ing of  the  hands  of  the  slain,  while  three  scribes  enter  the  numbers  on  their  tab- 
lets. 

preceding  day  ;  but  merely  to  fill  the  spaces  with  figures.  In 
some  of  these  minor  episodes  we  see  the  Egyptian  warriors 
descending  from  their  chariots  and  attacking  the  enemy  on 
foot.  The  Hittite  chariots  are  clumsily  built,  the  wheels 
being  cut  from  a  solid  block  of  wood,  like  millstones,  and 
working  on  a  central  pivot.  The  Khetan  soldiers  wear  a 
scalp-lock,  and  are  three  in  a  chariot. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     215 


Finally,  the  field  is 
King,  seated  in  his 
chariot  with  his  back 
to  the  horses,  wit- 
nesses the  bringing  in 
of  the  prisoners  and 
the  counting  of  the 
hands  of  the  slain. 
Three  officers  cast 
the  severed  hands  in 
a  heap  before  the  feet 
of  the  conqueror, 
while  the  captives, 
strung  together  by 
the  neck,  are  brought 
into  his  presence 
with  their  arras  fast 
bound  behind  their 
backs. 

In  the  last  scene  of 
all,  Raineses,  depict- 
ed of  colossal  size, 
sits  enthroned,  and 
receives  the  congrat- 
ulations of  his  great 
officers  of  state.  His 
fan  -  bearer  and  his 
bow-bearer  stand  be- 
hind his  chair,  and 
his  chariot  and  horses 
are  taken  back  with 
honor  to  the  royal 
stables. 

It  is  evident  that 
the  artists  who  de- 
signed the  sculptured 
illustrations  at  Abu- 


fought — the  battle  is  won;  and  the 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Simbel  and  Thebes  were  not  dependent  on  only  the  text  of 
the  poem  for  the  .subject-matter  of  their  battle- scenes.  They 
were  familiar  with  incidents  of  which  the  poet  takes  no  note, 
and  of  which  we  could  know  nothing  had  they  not  been  re- 
corded by  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor  and  the  brush  of  the 
painter.  In  that  spirited  scene  where  Kam6ses,  Phoebus- 
like,  stands  erect  in  his  chariot,  bending  his  great  bow  and 


TIIK    PRINCE    OF    ALEPPO    HKLD    UPSIDEDOVVN    AFTER    DROWNING. 

From  tlie  Pylon  of  the  Ramesseum,  Thebes.    Photographed  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


chasing  the  enemy  into  the  water  (page  209),  we  see,  for  in- 
stance, a  half-drowned  chieftain  being  dragged  to  land  by 
one  of  the  Hittite  garrison,  and  we  learn  that  he  was  no  less 
a  personage  than  the  Prince  of  Aleppo.  A  hieroglyphic  in- 
scription engraved  over  the  head  of  the  rescued  man  in  the 
Abu-Simbel  tableau  runs  thus :  "  The  Great  of  Aleppo.  His 
warriors  lift  him  up  after  the  King  has  flung  him  into  the 
water."  Now,  it  is  certain  that  this  is  no  merely  fanciful 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     217 

episode  designed  by  the  artist  in  order  to  heighten  the  effect 
of  his  tableau,  for  the  same  incident  is  depicted  in  the  version 
sculptured  on  the  great  pylon  of  the  Ramesseum  at  Thebes. 
The  artist  of  the  Ramesseum,  however,  chooses  a  later  phase 
of  the  catastrophe,  when  the  unlucky  prince  has  been  drag- 
ged ashore,  and  is  held  up  head  downwards,  in  order  to 
let  the  water  run  out  of  his  mouth  —  a  method  by  no 
means  to  be  recommended  under  the  circumstances.  The 
color  is  yet  preserved  on  this  part  of  the  subject,  and  it 
shows  the  Prince  of  Aleppo  to  have  been  of  the  race  of 
fair  Syrians,  his  eyes  being  painted  blue,  and  his  hair  and 
beard  light  red.  We  also  learn  from  one  of  these  battle- 
subjects  that  "  the  writer  of  books  of  the  vile  Hittite  "  (that 
is  to  say,  the  official  scribe  of  the  Hittite  leader)  accompanied 
the  Syrian  host.  Rameses,  without  doubt,  had  also  his  fol- 
lowing of  royal  scribes,  and  one  of  them  was  in  all  proba- 
bility the  author  of  this  poem.  How  highly  it  gratified  the 
vanity  of  Rameses  may  be  gathered  from  the  frequency  with 
which  he  caused  it  to  be  reproduced  upon  the  walls  of  tem- 
ples and  pylons  during  his  long  reign.  (62) 

The  scientific  literature  of  the  Egyptians  is  extremely  in- 
teresting, inasmuch  as  it  illustrates  that  eager  spirit  of  in- 
quiry which  is  the  mainspring  of  intellectual  effort,  and  with- 
out which  there  can  be  no  intellectual  progress.  But  its  value 
to  us  is,  of  course,  purely  archasological.  "We  have  nothing 
to  learn  from  these  earliest  pioneers  of  astronomy,  of  mathe- 
matics, of  medicine.  We  smile  at  their  childlike  and  fanciful 
speculations;  but  we  are  sometimes  amazed  to  find  how  near 
they  were  to  grasping  many  truths  which  we  have  been  wont 
to  regard  as  the  hard-won  prizes  of  modern  research. 

This  is  especially  true  of  ancient  Egyptian  astronomy. 
Their  observations  were  singularly  exact.  They  understood 
perfectly  well  the  difference  between  the  fixed  stars  and  the 
planets ;  the  first  being  "  the  genii  which  never  move,"  and 
the  last  "  the  genii  which  never  rest."  They  even  knew  that 
our  own  earth  forms  part  of  the  planetary  system,  and  is  sub- 
ject to  the  same  law  of  motion.  In  a  hieratic  inscription  of 


218  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

the  Pyramid  Period,  for  instance,  it  is  said  that  "  the  earth 
navigates  the  celestial  ocean  in  like  manner  with  the  sun  and 

O 

the  stars." (M)  Again,  in  a  remarkable  passage  of  the  Great 
Harris  Papyrus,  we  read  how  Ptah,  the  primordial  god, 
"  moulded  man,  created  the  gods,  made  the  sky,  and  formed 
the  earth  revolving  in  space"  Unhappily, no  papyrus  treat- 
ing of  astronomy  has  yet  been  discovered ;  but  zodiacs,  cal- 
endars, and  astronomical  tables,  showing  the  divisions  of  the 
year,  the  phases  of  the  moon,  and  the  dates  and  hours  of  the 
rising  and  setting  of  certain  planets,  abound  on  the  walls  of 
temples  and  tombs. 

Two  mathematical  papyri  have  been  found.  One  was  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  Petrie  in  the  ruins  of  a  buried  house  in  Tanis. 
This  papyrus  is  the  property  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund, 
and  Prof.  Eugene  Revillout,  of  the  Egyptian  Department 
of  the  Louvre,  has  undertaken  to  translate  it.  The  other 
mathematical  papyrus  was  found  by  Mr.  Rhind  at  Thebes. 
It  belongs  to  the  British  Museum,  and  has  been  translated 
by  Dr.  August  Eisenlohr,  of  Heidelberg.  This  curious  docu- 
ment treats  of  plane  trigonometry  and  the  measurement  of 
solids;  and  it  contains  not  only  a  system  of  reckoning  by 
decimals,  but  a  series  of  problems  for  solution  by  the  student. 
Of  the  practical  geometry  of  the  Egyptians,  we  have  a  mag- 
nificent example  in  the  Pyramids,  which  could  never  have 
been  erected  by  builders  who  were  not  thoroughly  conver- 
sant with  the  art  of  measuring  surfaces  and  calculating  the 
bulk  and  weight  of  materials. 

Works  on  medicine  abounded  in  Egypt  from  the  remotest 
times,  and  the  great  medical  library  of  Memphis,  which  was 
of  immemorial  antiquity,  was  yet  in  existence  in  the  second 
century  before  our  era,  when  Galen  visited  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile.  The  Egyptians  seem,  indeed,  to  have  especially  prided 
themselves  on  their  skill  as  physicians,  and  the  art  of  heal- 
ing was  held  in  such  high  esteem  that  even  kings  made 
it  their  study.  Ateta,  third  king  of  the  First  Dynasty,  is  the 
reputed  author  of  a  treatise  on  anatomy.  He  also  covered 
himself  with  glory  by  the  invention  of  an  infallible  hair-wash, 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT   EGYPT.     219 

which,  like  a  dutiful  son,  he  is  said  to  have  prepared  espe- 
cially for  the  benefit  of  his  mother. 

No  less  than  five  medical  papyri  have  come  down  to  our 
time,  the  finest  being  the  celebrated  Ebers  papyrus,  bought 
at  Thebes  by  Dr.  Ebers  in  1874.  This  papyrus  contains  one 
hundred  and  ten  pages,  each  page  consisting  of  about  twen- 
ty-two lines  of  bold  hieratic  writing.  It  may  be  described 
as  an  Encyclopaedia  of  Medicine  as  known  and  practised  by 
the  Egyptians  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty ;  and  it  contains 
prescriptions  for  all  kinds  of  diseases — some  borrowed  from 
Syrian  medical  lore,  and  some  of  such  great  antiquity  that 
they  are  ascribed  to  the  mythologic  ages,  when  the  gods  yet 
reigned  personally  upon  earth.  Among  others,  we  are  given 
the  recipe  for  an  application  whereby  Osiris  cured  Ra  of  the 
headache. 

The  Egyptians  attached  great  importance  to  these  ancient 
medical  works,  which  were  regarded  as  final.  The  physi- 
cian who  faithfully  followed  their  rules  of  treatment  might 
kill  or  cure  with  impunity ;  but  if  he  ventured  to  treat  the 
patient  according  to  his  own  notions,  and  if  that  patient 
died,  he  paid  for  the  experiment  with  his  life.  Seeing,  how- 
ever, what  the  canonical  remedies  were,  the  marvel  is  that 
anybody  ever  recovered  from  anything.  Raw  meat ;  horri- 
ble mixtures  of  nitre,  beer,  milk,  and  blood,  boiled  up  and 
swallowed  hot ;  the  bile  of  certain  fishes ;  and  the  bones,  fat, 
and  skins  of  all  kinds  of  unsavory  creatures,  such  as  vultures, 
bats,  lizards,  and  crocodiles,  were  among  their  choicest  reme- 
dies. What  we  suffer  at  the  hands  of  the  faculty  in  this 
nineteenth  century  is  bad  enough ;  but  we  may  rejoice  that 
we  have  escaped  the  learned  practitioners  of  Memphis  and 
Thebes. 

The  moral  philosophy  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  is  pecul- 
iarly interesting  to  us  of  a  later  age.  It  is  not  a  profound 
philosophy.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  simple,  practical,  and 
very  much  to  the  point.  We  have  several  papyri  contain- 
ing collections  of  moral  precepts,  and  most  of  them  are 
written  in  the  form  of  aphorisms  on  the  conduct  of  life, 


220  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

addressed  by  a  father  to  his  son.  Such  are  the  Maxims  of 
the  Scribe  Ani,  the  Maxims  of  Ptah-hotep,  and  others.  The 
Maxims  of  Ptah-hotep  are  contained  in  the  famous  Prisse 
Papyrus,  which  has  been  styled  "  The  Oldest  Book  in  the 
World."  This  papyrus  dates  from  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
and  is  copied  from  a  yet  more  ancient  document  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty,  written  some  three  thousand  eight  hundred  years 
before  our  era.  It  is  one  of  the  treasures  of  the  Biblio- 
theque  Rationale,  in  Paris. 

"  Be  not  proud  because  of  thy  learning,"  saith  Ptah-hotep. 
"Converse  with  the  ignorant  as  freely  as  with  the  scholar, 
for  the  gates  of  knowledge  should  never  oe  closed" 

"  If  thou  art  exalted  after  having  been  low,  if  thou  art 
rich  after  having  been  needy,  harden  not  thy  heart  because 
of  thy  elevation.  Thou  hast  but  become  a  steward  of  the 
good  things  belonging  to  the  gods." 

"  If  thou  wouldst  be  of  good  conduct  and  dwell  apart  from 
evil,  beware  of  bad  temper ;  for  it  contains  the  germs  of  all 
wickedness.  When  a  man  takes  Justice  for  his  guide  and 
walks  in  her  ways,  there  is  no  room  in  his  soul  for  bad  temper." 

"  If  thou  art  a  leader  doing  those  things  which  are  ac- 
cording to  thy  will,  do  for  the  best,  which  shall  be  remem- 
bered in  time  to  come,  so  that  the  word  which  flatters,  or  feeds 
pride,  or  makes  for  vainglory,  shall  not  weigh  with  thee." 

"  Treat  well  thy  people,  as  it  behooves  thee ;  this  is  the 
duty  of  those  whom  the  gods  favor." 

"  Do  not  disturb  a  great  man ;  do  not  distract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  busy  man.  His  care  is  to  accomplish  his  task. 
Love  for  the  work  they  have  to  do  brings  men  nearer  to  the 
gods." 

"  Do  not  repeat  the  violent  words  [of  others].  Do  not  lis- 
ten to  them.  They  have  escaped  a  heated  soul.  If  they  are 
repeated  in  thy  hearing,  look  on  the  ground  and  be  silent." 

"  Take  care  of  those  wrho  are  faithful  to  thee,  even  when 
thine  own  estate  is  in  evil  case.  So  shall  thy  merit  be  great- 
er than  the  honors  which  are  done  to  thee."  (54 ) 

These,  taken  at  random,  are  some  of  the  wise  words  writ- 


LITERATURE  AND   RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     221 

ten  by  Ptah-hotep  when,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  he  had  reached 
the  patriarchal  age  of  one  hundred  and  ten  years. 

The  Scribe  Ani,  who  lived  about  one  thousand  years  later, 
preaches  the  same  just  and  gentle  gospel.  He  says: 

u  Beware  of  giving  pain  by  the  words  of  thy  mouth,  and 
make  not  thyself  to  be  feared." 

"  He  who  speaks  evil,  reaps  evil." 

"Work  for  thyself.  Do  not  count  upon  the  wealth  of 
others ;  it  will  not  enter  thy  dwelling-place." 

"  Do  not  eat  bread  in  the  presence  of  one  who  stands  and 
waits,  without  putting  forth  thine  hand  towards  the  loaf  for 
him." 

"  Enter  not  into  a  crowd  if  thou  art  there  in  the  begin- 
nings of  a  quarrel." 

Good  manners  are  the  minor  morality  of  life,  and  Ani 
was  not  only  a  sage  but  a  man  of  the  world.  He  has  some- 
thing to  say  on  the  subject  of  etiquette : 

"  Be  not  discourteous  to  the  stranger  who  is  in  thy  house. 
He  is  thy  guest." 

"  Do  not  remain  sitting  when  thy  elder,  or  thy  superior,  is 
standing." 

"  If  a  deaf  man  is  present,  do  not  multiply  words ;  it  is 
better  thou  keep  silent." 

A  demotic  papyrus  (55)  of  comparatively  recent  date  (in 
the  Louvre  collection)  contains  a  series  of  maxims  of  much 
the  same  character  as  those  propounded  by  Ptah-hotep  in  the 
time  of  the  Ancient  Empire,  and  by  the  Scribe  Ani  under  the 
New  Empire ;  thus  proving  that  the  moral  code  of  the  Egyp- 
tians remained  in  all  essential  points  the  same,  from  the  ear- 
liest to  the  latest  chapter  of  their  national  history. 

"  Associate  not  thyself  with  the  evil-doer,"  says  this  last 
moralist. 

"  Ill-treat  not  thine  inferior ;  respect  the  aged." 

"  Ill-treat  not  thy  wife,  whose  strength  is  less  than  thine. 
Be  thou  her  protector." 

"  Save  not  thine  own  life  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  an- 
other." 


222  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

It  is  such  brief  and  simple  sayings  as  these  which  bring  us 
nearest  to  the  hearts  of  the  old  Egyptian  people.  We  see 
them  "  as  in  a  glass,"  and  we  see  them  at  their  best :  a  gen- 
tle, kindly,  law-abiding  race,  anxious  to  cultivate  peace  and 
good -will,  and  to  inculcate  those  rules  of  good  conduct 
whereby  their  own  lives  had  been  guided.  Their  philoso- 
phy was  not  profound.  They  were  not  tormented  by  "  the 
burden  and  the  mystery  of  all  this  unintelligible  world." 
They  made  no  attempt  to  formulate  or  to  solve  those  deeper 
problems  which  have  perplexed  the  students  of  humanity 
since  their  time.  To  live  happily,  to  live  long,  to  deserve 
the  favor  of  their  superiors,  to  train  their  children  in  sane 
thinking  and  right -doing,  to  be  respected  in  life  and  hon- 
orably remembered  by  posterity,  represented  the  sum  of 
their  desires.  It  is  a  philosophy  of  utility  and  good-will,  in 
which  the  ideal  has  no  part. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  would  have  been  unlike  all  other 
Orientals  if  they  had  not  loved  stories  and  songs;  yet  it 
was  not  till  the  first  ancient  Egyptian  romance  was  discov- 
ered that  any  one  dreamed  of  a  popular  literature  of  the 
days  of  the  Pharaohs.  We  had,  I  suppose,  been  so  accus- 
tomed to  think  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  as  mummies  that 
we  scarcely  remembered  they  were  men.  Those  mummies, 
it  is  true,  had  once  been  alive  in  a  solemn,  leathery,  un- 
sympathetic way,  as  became  a  people  who  were  destined 
to  be  spiced,  bandaged,  and  ultimately  consigned  to  glass- 
cases  in  modern  museums.  But  as  for  an  ancient  Egyptian 
in  love,  chanting  a  sonnet  to  his  mistress's  eyebrow  and  ac- 
companying himself  on  the  lute — we  should  have  blushed  to 
think  of  him  in  connection  with  so  trivial  an  occupation ! 

And  yet,  within  the  last  five-and-thirty  years,  no  less  than 
fifteen  or  sixteen  romantic  stories,  and  almost  as  many  love- 
songs,  have  been  brought  to  light.  ( 56 )  Some  had  been  lying 
undeciphered  in  the  learned  dust  of  various  museums.  Oth- 
ers were  found  in  graves — buried,  strange  to  say,  with  the 
mummies  of  their  former  owners.  Some  are  as  old  as  the 
Twelfth  Dynasty ;  others  are  as  recent  as  the  time  of  Alex- 


LITERATURE  AND   RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     223 

ander  and  the  Ptolemies.  In  some  we  recognize  stories 
familiar  to  us  from  childhood  as  old  nursery  tales,  and  as 
stories  first  read  in  the  Arabian  Nights  Entertainments  /  in 
others  we  discover  the  originals  of  legends  which  Herodo- 
tus, with  a  credulity  peculiar  to  the  learned,  accepted  for 
history.  Even  some  of  the  fables  attributed  to  ^Esop  are 
drawn  from  Egyptian  sources  older  by  eight  hundred  years 
than  the  famous  dwarf  who  is  supposed  to  have  invented 
them.  The  fable  of  "  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse  "  was  discov- 
ered by  Dr.  Brugsch  in  an  Egyptian  papyrus  a  few  years 
ago.  "  The  Dispute  of  the  Stomach  and  the  Members  "  has 
yet  more  recently  been  identified  by  Professor  Maspero 
with  an  ancient  Egyptian  original.  (")  When  we  remember, 
however,  that  tradition  associates  the  name  of  ./Esop  with 
that  of  Rhodopis,  who  lived  at  Naukratis  in  the  time  of 
Amasis,  we  seem  to  be  within  touch  of  the  actual  connection 
between  ^Esop  and  Egypt. 

Of  this  same  Rhodopis  it  is  said,  in  an  ancient  Egyptian 
story  repeated  by  Herodotus,  that  an  eagle  flew  away  with 
her  sandal  while  she  was  bathing,  and  dropped  it  at  the  feet 
of  the  Egyptian  King,  at  Memphis.  Struck  by  its  beauty, 
he  sent  out  his  messengers  in  all  directions  to  find  the  own- 
er of  this  little  sandal ;  and  when  they  had  found  her,  he 
made  her  his  queen.  In  another  Egyptian  story,  called 
"  The  Tale  of  the  Two  Brothers,"  a  lock  of  hair  from  the 
head  of  a  beautiful  damsel  is  carried  to  Egypt  by  the  river, 
and  its  perfume  is  so  ravishing  that  the  King  despatches  his 
scouts  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  that 
they  may  bring  to  him  the  owner  of  this  lock  of  hair.  She 
is  found,  of  course,  and  she  becomes  his  bride.  In  these  tales 
we  have  apparently  the  germ  of  Cinderella. 

In  another  story,  called  "The  Taking  of  Joppa,"  we  meet 
with  what  is  unquestionably  the  original  source  of  the  lead- 
ing incident  in  the  familiar  story  of  "  Ali  Baba  and  the  For- 
ty Thieves."  One  Tahuti,  a  general  of  Thothmes  III.,  who 
is  sent  to  lay  siege  to  the  city  of  Joppa,  conceals  two  hun- 
dred of  his  soldiers  in  two  hundred  big  jars,  fills  three  hun- 


224:  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

dred  other  jars  with  cords  and  fetters,  loads  live  hundred 
other  soldiers  with  these  five  hundred  jars,  and  sends  them 
into  the  city  in  the  character  of  captives.  Once  inside  the 
gates,  the  bearers  liberate  and  arm  their  comrades,  take  the 
place,  and  make  all  the  inhabitants  prisoners.  Now,  al- 
though the  King  and  the  General  are  both  historical  per- 
sonages, and  although  Joppa  figures  in  the  lists  of  cities  con- 
quered by  Thothmes  III.,  the  story  itself  is  evidently  pure 
romance.  As.  for  the  big  jars  with  their  human  cargoes, 
they  are  clearly  the  forefathers  of  the  jars  which  housed 
the  "  Forty  Thieves." 

We  turn  to  another  story,  called  "  The  Doomed  Prince," 
and  we  are  at  once  reminded  of  the  story  of  "Prince  Agib  and 
the  Lodestone  Mountain."  After  years  of  hope  deferred,  a 
king  and  queen  are  blessed  with  a  beautiful  son.  The  seven 
Hathors,  who  play  the  part  of  fairy  godmothers  in  these  old 
Egyptian  stories,  predict  that  the  prince  will  die  from  the 
bite  of  a  crocodile,  a  serpent,  or  a  dog.  The  King  according- 
ly builds  a  castle  on  the  top  of  a  lofty  mountain,  and  there 
makes  a  state-prisoner  of  his  son.  His  precautions  are,  of 
course,  in  vain.  The  young  man  escapes  from  durance  vile, 
and  becomes  the  husband  of  a  lovely  princess  and  the  master 
of  a  faithful  dog.  The  princess  kills  the  serpent ;  the  dog 
kills  the  crocodile ;  and,  although  the  end  of  the  story  is  un- 
fortunately lost,  it  is  evident  that  the  dog,  by  some  fatal  ac- 
cident, will  fulfil  his  master's  doom,  just  as  the  doom  of  Agib 
is  fulfilled  by  his  friend. 

Another  tale  of  extreme  antiquity,  entitled  "  The  Ship- 
wrecked Mariner,"  tells  of  a  seaman  cast  on  the  shores  of  a 
desolate  island  abounding  in  delicious  fruits,  and  inhabited 
by  a  limited  population  of  seventy -five  amiable  and  intelli- 
gent serpents.  The  head  of  this  charming  family  was  thirty 
cubits  long.  His  body  was  incrusted  with  gold  and  lapis 
lazuli,  and  nature  had  adorned  him  with  a  magnificent  beard. 
He  talks  like  a  book ;  treats  the  seaman  with  distinguished 
hospitality ;  and  when  a  ship  comes  that  way,  dismisses  his 
guest  with  gifts  of  perfumes,  incense,  rare  woods,  elephant- 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     225 

tusks,  baboons,  and  all  kinds  of  precious  things.  Here  is 
probably  the  starting-point  of  our  dear  old  friend,  •*' Sind- 
bad  the  Sailor,"  who  was  also  cast  among  a  population  of 
serpents. 

In  others  of  these  ancient  fictions,  King  Khufu,  the  builder 
of  the  Great  Pyramid ;  Prince  Kha-em-uas,  the  favorite  son 
of  Rameses  the  Great ;  King  Amasis,  who  gave  Naukratis  to 
the  Greeks;  and  even  the  great  Alexander  himself,  figure 
among  the  dramatis  personce. 

Of  the  popular  poetry  of  those  far-off  times  we  will  take 
but  two  specimens,  the  one  a  love-song,  from  a  papyrus  in 
the  British  Museum ;  the  other  a  rustic  ditty,  supposed  to  be 
sung  by  the  driver  of  a  pair  of  oxen,  while  they  tread  out  the 
corn  on  the  threshing-floor. 

The  love-song  is  sung  by  a  girl  to  her  lover.  Each  strophe 
begins  with  an  invocation  to  a  flower,  thus  curiously  resem- 
bling the  stornelli  of  the  Tuscan  peasantry,  of  which  every 
verse  begins  and  ends  with  a  similar  invocation  to  some 
familiar  blossom  or  tree : 

"  Oh,  flower  of  henna ! 
My  heart  stands  still  in  thy  presence. 
I  have  made  mine  eyes  brilliant  for  thee  with  kohl. 
When  I  behold  thee,  I  fly  to  thee,  oh  my  Beloved  ! 
Oh,  Lord  of  my  heart,  sweet  is  this  hour.     An  hour  passed  with 
thee  is  worth  an  hour  of  eternity  ! 

"  Oh,  flower  of  marjoram  ! 

Fain  would  I  be  to  thee  as  the  garden  in  which  I  have  planted 
flowers  and  sweet -smelling  shrubs!  the  garden  watered  by 
pleasant  runlets,  and  refreshed  by  the  north  breeze  ! 

Here  let  us  walk,  oh  my  Beloved,  hand  in  hand,  our  hearts  filled 
with  joy ! 

Better  than  food,  better  than  drink,  is  it  to  behold  thee. 

To  behold  thee,  and  to  behold  thee  again  !" 

This  is  literally  "  the  old,  old  story ;"  and  the  story  this 
time  is  yet  older  than  the  song.(") 

15 


226  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Our  thresh  ing -song  dates  from  about  1650  B.C.  It  is 
carved  on  the  walls  of  the  tomb  of  one  Pahiri,  at  El  Kab  in 
Upper  Egypt,  and  it  belongs  to  the  early  years  of  the  Eigh- 
teenth Dynasty.  In  the  wall-painting  which  illustrates  the 
text,  we  see  the  oxen  at  work,  just  as  in  the  Egypt  of  to-day, 
treading  in  a  measured  circle,  with  the  driver  seated  on  his 
revolving  stool  in  the  middle. 

It  is  a  simple  chant  of  but  four  lines  many  times  repeat- 
ed^ M)  We  know  not  the  air  to  which  it  was  sung;  but  no 
one  who  has  listened  to  the  monotonous  songs  of  the  Egyp- 
tian laborers  as  they  ply  the  shaduf  or  the  water-wheel,  can 
fail  to  be  struck  by  their  evident  antiquity.  Doubtless,  the 
cadenced  chant  intoned  of  old  by  Pahiri's  laborers  survives  to 
this  day  among  those  so  often  heard  by  the  modern  traveller, 
as  his  boat  glides  along  the  broad  waters  of  the  sacred  river. 
These  are  the  words : 

"  Thresh  the  corn,  oh  ye  oxen ! 
Thresh  for  yourselves,  oh  oxen  ! 
The  fodder  for  eating, 
The  grain  for  your  master !" 

It  has  been  thus  paraphrased  by  Mr.  Gliddon : 

"  Hie  along  oxen, 
Tread  the  corn  faster ! 
The  straw  for  yourselves; 
The  grain  for  your  master !" 

The  Religion  of  ancient  Egypt  is  still  very  imperfectly 
understood.  Every  year,  almost  every  day,  we  find  our- 
selves compelled  to  abandon  some  long-established  theory 
which,  up  to  that  moment,  we  had  believed  to  be  as  self- 
evident  as  the  pyramids,  and  as  well  understood  as  the  law 
of  gravitation.  The  opening  of  a  tomb,  the  discovery  of  a 
papyrus,  may  at  any  moment  put  us  in  possession  of  religious 
texts  older  than  the  oldest  yet  known,  and  subversive,  per- 
haps, of  our  best-founded  assumptions. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     227 

This  is  precisely  what  happened  when  the  pyramids  of 
Unas,  Teta,  and  other  very  early  kings  were  excavated  in 
1881  and  1882.  Because  the  Great  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh  are 
destitute  of  inscriptions,  it  had  been  rashly  concluded  that 
all  pyramids  must  be  blank.  Great,  therefore,  was  the  stu- 
pefaction of  those  who  pinned  their  faith  upon  that  theory, 
when  the  sepulchral  chambers  and  passages  of  this  group 
were  found  to  be  lined  with  graven  prayers  and  invocations, 
some  of  which  are  more  ancient  than  any  religious  texts  pre- 
viously known.  Again,  it  had  been  laid  down  as  one  of  the 
fundamental  facts  of  the  Egyptian  religion  that  certain  gods, 
whose  renown  was  great  at  a  later  period,  were  as  yet  un- 
born, so  to  speak,  in  the  time  of  the  Pyramid  Kings.  Thebes 
was  not  founded  till  the  beginning  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty, 
and  Amen  was  the  Great  God  of  Thebes.  Consequently, 
Amen  had  no  existence  when  the  pyramids  of  Unas,  Teta, 
and  Pepi,  of  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Dynasties,  were  built.  But 
when  those  pyramids  were  laid  open,  Amen  was  found  there 
as  a  member  of  the  cycle  of  great  deities. 

We  cannot,  in  fact,  exercise  too  much  caution  in  formulat- 
ing general  rules,  or  in  making  use  of  elastic  definitions.  We 
speak,  for  instance,  of  "  the  Egyptian  religion ;"  but  there  can 
hardly  be  a  much  more  misleading  phrase.  Just  as  Professor 
Revillout  has  said  of  the  Egyptian  language  that  "  it  is  not 
one  language,  but  a  whole  family  of  languages,"  so  I  would 
say  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  that  it  is  not  one  religion,  but  a 
whole  family  of  religions.  This  family  springs,  it  is  true, 
from  one  very  ancient  stock ;  but  it  branches  out  into  innu- 
merable varieties.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  was 
in  Egypt  a  Eeligion  of  the  Pyramid  Period,  a  Eeligion  of  the 
Theban  Period,  a  Religion  of  Sai's,  a  Ileligion  of  the  Ptole- 
maic age,  a  Popular  Religion,  a  Sacerdotal  Religion,  a  Relig- 
ion of  Polytheism,  a  Religion  of  Pantheism,  a  Religion  of 
Monotheism,  and  a  Religion  of  Platonic  Philosophy.  And 
these  religions  were  not  revolutionary.  The  new  did  not 
drive  out  the  old,  as  the  bud  pushes  off  the  dead  leaf  in  au- 
tumn. On  the  contrary,  the  Egyptians,  who  were  nothing 


228  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

if  not  conservative,  clung  with  the  strictest  fidelity  to  the 
old,  even  while  ardently  embracing  the  new.  It  did  not  mat- 
ter in  the  least,  if  the  dogmas  of  one  school  were  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  the  dogmas  of  half  a  dozen  other  schools ; 
they  continued  to  believe  them  all.(°°) 

The  one  great  and  crucial  question — the  question  which  we 
are  most  keenly  concerned  to  resolve — is  whether  the  ancient 
Egyptians  believed  in  one  God,  or  in  many  gods.  In  Ra,  the 
supreme  solar  deity,  are  we  to  recognize  the  Egyptian  syno- 
nym for  "Almighty  God,  Maker  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  and  of 
all  that  in  them  is  ?"  Are  the  other  deities  of  the  Egyptian 
Pantheon  mere  personifications  of  his  divine  attributes  ?  Does 
Knum  represent  his  creative  power  ?  Does  Amen,  the  Hid- 
den One,  signify  his  unsearchable  mystery  ?  Does  Thoth,  the 
ibis  -  headed  god  of  letters,  typify  his  wisdom,  and  the  bull 
Apis  his  strength,  and  the  jackal  Anubis  his  swiftness  ?  Are 
these  animal-headed  and  bird-headed  and  reptile-headed  forms 
mere  hieroglyphs,  of  which  the  secret  meaning  is  the  unity 
and  omnipresence  of  God  ? 

This  theory  was  elaborated  in  the  first  instance  by  M. 
Pierret,  in  his  Essai  sur  la  Mythologie  Egyptienne  /  and  it  has 
been  still  further  developed  by  Dr.  Brugsch  in  his  recent 
work  on  The  Religion  and  Mythology  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians. As  it  is  the  most  attractive  exposition  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Pantheon,  so  it  is  undoubtedly  the  most  popular,  and  I 
therefore  doubly  regret  that  I  am  unable  to  follow  M.  Pier- 
ret  and  Dr.  Brugsch  in  their  proposed  solution  of  this  deeply 
interesting  problem.  This  solution  is  founded  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians  was,  from  first  to  last, 
absolutely  homogeneous ;  and  that  in  all  its  complex  devel- 
opments it  merely  presented  varying  aspects  of  one  simple, 
fundamental,  and  God-given  truth.  In  this  sense,  all  the 
gods  of  Egypt  are  one  and  the  same,  the  name  merely 
changing  with  the  seat  of  worship.  Animal  worship  be- 
comes mere  symbolism;  and  Knum,  Sebek,  Horus,  Thoth, 
Anubis,  and  the  rest,  are  but  reflections  of  an  omnipresent 
Deity. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     22i) 

The  Egyptians  were,  unquestionably,  the  most  wonderful 
people  of  antiquity;  but  they  would  have  been  infinitely 
more  wonderful  had  they  started  in  life  with  notions  so  just, 
so  philosophic,  so  exalted,  as  these.  The  earliest  Egyptian 
monuments  to  which  we  can  assign  a  date  are  the  monuments 
of  a  people  already  highly  civilized,  and  in  the  possession  of 
an  alphabetic  system  of  writing,  a  grammar,  a  government, 
and  a  religion.  It  must  have  taken  them  long  ages  to  arrive  at 
this  advanced  stage  of  their  national  development ;  and  of 
those  ages  a  few  vague  traditions  and  the  names  of  three  dy- 
nasties of  kings  have  alone  survived.  Yet  there  must  have 
been  a  time  when  these  people  were  mere  unlettered  barbari- 
ans, like  the  forefathers  of  other  nations.  They  did  not  spring 
fully  civilized  from  the  nmd  of  the  inundation,  like  Athena 
from  the  head  of  Zeus.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  barbarian 
origin  of  the  Egyptians  is  more  distinctly  traceable  than  the 
barbarian  origin  of  any  other  highly  civilized  nation  of  an- 
tiquity. It  is  traceable  in  their  laws,  in  their  customs,  and 
even  in  their  costumes.  Above  all,  it  is  traceable  in  their  re- 
ligion. 

We  have  but  to  turn  our  eyes  to  the  far  West  of  America 
in  order  to  discover  the  living  solution  of  some  of  our  most 
puzzling  Egyptian  problems.  Just  as  the  northern  half  of 
that  great  continent  was  originally  possessed  by  tribes  of 
Indians,  so  the  land  of  Egypt,  in  the  ages  before  history,  was 
divided  into  many  small  territories,  each  territory  peopled 
by  an  independent  clan.  The  red  man  had,  and  has,  his 
"totems,"  or  clan  crests;  these  "totems"  being  sometimes 
animals,  as  the  bear,  the  wolf,  the  beaver,  the  deer;  and 
sometimes  birds,  as  the  snipe,  the  hawk,  the  heron.  So,  in 
like  manner,  the  prehistoric  tribes  of  ancient  Eygpt  will 
have  had  their  "totems,"  taken  from  the  familiar  beasts, 
birds,  and  reptiles  of  the  Nile  Valley— the  jackal,  the  croco- 
dile, the  ibis,  and  so  forth. 

Now,  a  distinctive  appellation  is  one  of  the  first  necessities 
of  life,  whether  savage  or  civilized;  and  in  an  age  when 
proper  names,  and  the  occupations  from  which  proper  names 


230  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

are  largely  derived,  are  yet  unknown,  the  tribal  name  is  of 
extreme  importance.  For  this  tribal  name,  the  savage  natu- 
rally adopts  that  of  some  creature  whose  strength,  subtlety, 
swiftness,  or  fearlessness  may  symbolize  such  qualities  in 
himself.  These  facts  are  true  of  barbarian  and  semi-civilized 
races  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Bechuanas  of  South 
Africa,  the  Kols  of  Khota  Nagpar  in  Asia,  the  Yakats  of 
Siberia  in  Northern  Europe,  the  aborigines  of  Australia,  are 
all  divided  into  clans,  each  clan  being  affiliated  to  some  beast, 
bird,  fish,  or  reptile.  They  all  regard  the  "  totem  "  animal 
as  sacred.  They  forbear  to  eat  it ;  and  if  compelled  in  self- 
defence  to  kill  it,  they  ask  its  pardon  for  the  act. 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  origin  of  animal  worship — animal 
worship  being  the  direct  outcome  of  totemism. 

Now,  what  is  true  of  these  American,  South  African,  Asi- 
atic, European,  and  Australian  tribes,  must  surely  be  true 
also  of  the  prehistoric  Egyptians.  They  began  with  totem- 
ism —  the  Bull-clan  at  Memphis,  the  Crocodile-clan  in  the 
Fay  urn,  the  Ibis-clan  at  Hermopolis,  and  so  forth.(61 )  As  time 
went  on  and  civilization  progressed,  they  explained  away  the 
grosser  features  of  this  creed  by  representing  the  totem  ani- 
mal as  the  symbol,  or  incarnation,  of  an  unseen  deity ;  and 
there  is  no  clearer  proof  of  the  extreme  antiquity  of  their 
civilization  than  the  fact  that  they  had  already  reached  this 
point  in  their  spiritual  career  when  Mena,  the  first  king  of 
the  First  Dynasty,  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the  Temple 
of  Ptah,  at  Memphis. 

But,  having  started  from  totemism,  animal  worship,  and 
polytheism,  did  they  not  rise  at  last  to  higher  things  —  to 
monotheism,  pure  and  simple  ? 

Yes ;  they  did  rise  to  monotheism ;  but  not,  I  think,  to 
monotheism  pure  and  simple.  Their  monotheism  was  not 
exactly  our  monotheism :  it  was  a  monotheism  based  upon, 
and  evolved  from,  the  polytheism  of  earlier  ages.  Could  we 
question  a  high-priest  of  Thebes  of  the  time  of  the  Nineteenth 
or  Twentieth  Dynasty  on  the  subject  of  his  faith,  we  should 
be  startled  by  the  breadth  and  grandeur  of  his  views  touch- 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     231 

ing  the  Godhead.  He  would  tell  us  that  Ra  was  the  Great 
All ;  that  by  his  word  alone  he  called  all  things  into  exist- 
ence ;  that  all  things  are  therefore  but  reflections  of  himself 
and  his  will;  that  he  is  the  creator  of  day  and  night,'of  the 
heavenly  spheres,  of  infinite  space ;  that  he  is  the  eternal  es- 
sence, invisible,  omnipresent,  omniscient ;  in  a  word,  that  he 
is  God  Almighty. 

If,  after  this,  we  could  put  the  same  questions  to  a  high- 
priest  of  Memphis,  we  should  receive  a  very  similar  answer, 
only  we  should  now  be  told  that  this  great  divinity  was  Ptah. 
And  if  we  could  make  the  tour  of  Egypt,  visiting  every  great 
city,  and  questioning  the  priests  of  every  great  temple  in  turn, 
we  should  find  that  each  claimed  these  attributes  of  unity 
and  universality  for  his  own  local  god.  All,  nevertheless, 
would  admit  the  identity  of  these  various  deities.  They 
would  admit  that  he  whom  they  worshipped  at  Pleliopolis 
as  Ra  was  the  same  as  he  whom  they  worshipped  at  Mem- 
phis as  Ptah,  and  at  Thebes  as  Amen.  "We  have  proof  of 
their  catholicity  in  this  respect.  Ptah  and  Apis  were,  of 
course,  one  and  the  same ;  but  Apis  was  also  recognized  as 
"  The  Soul  of  Osiris,  and  the  Life  of  Turn."  Again,  Amen 
and  Knum  and  Sebek  were  made  one  with  Ra,  and  became 
Amen-Ra,  Knum-Ra,  and  Sebek-Ra.  This,  however,  was  but 
a  compromise,  and  they  never  got  beyond  it.  That  individ- 
ual theologians  rose  to  the  height  of  pure  monotheism  can- 
not be  doubted.  Those  who  conceived  and  formulated  the 
exalted  pantheism  of  Ra-worship  cannot  have  failed  to  go 
that  one  step  further ;  but  that  one  step  further  would  be 
heresy,  and  heresy  was  not  likely  to  leave  records  for  future 
historians  in  a  land  where  the  governing  classes  were  all 
members  of  the  priesthood.  In  a  word,  it  is  certain — abso- 
lutely certain— that  every  great  local  deity  was  worshipped  as 
the  "  one  God "  of  his  own  city  or  province ;  and  it  is  also 
certain  that,  to  whatever  extent  these  gods  were  identified 
one  with  another,  the  Egyptians  never  agreed  to  abolish 
their  Pantheon  in  favor  of  one,  and  only  one,  supreme  de- 


232  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

There  is,  however,  one  central  fact  which  must  never  be  over- 
looked in  any  discussion  of  the  religion  of  the  old  Egyptian 
people.  They  were  the  first  in  the  history  of  the  world  who 
recognized,  and  held  fast  by,  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Look  back  as  far  as  we  will  into  the  darkness 
of  their  past,  question  as  closely  as  we  may  the  earliest  of 
their  monuments,  and  we  yet  find  them  looking  forward  to 
an  eternal  future. 

Their  notions  of  Man,  the  microcosm,  were  more  complex 
than  ours.  They  conceived  him  to  consist  of  a  Body,  a  Soul, 
a  Spirit,  a  Name,  a  Shadow,  and  a  Ka — that  Ka  which  I  have 
ventured  to  interpret  as  the  Life  ;*  and  they  held  that  the 
perfect  reunion  of  all  these  parts  wras  a  necessary  condition 
of  the  life  to  come.  Hence  the  care  with  which  they  em- 
balmed the  Body ;  hence  the  food  and  drink  offerings  with 
which  they  nourished  the  Ka ;  hence  the  funerary  texts  with 
which  they  lined  the  tomb,  and  the  funerary  papyri  which 
they  buried  with  the  mummy  for  the  instruction  of  the  Soul. 
But  none  of  these  precautions  availed,  unless  the  man  had 
lived  a  pure  and  holy  life  in  this  world,  and  came  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  Osiris  with  clean  hands,  a  clean  heart,  and 
a  clean  conscience. 

"  Glory  to  thee,  O  thou  Great  God,  thou  Lord  of  truth  and 
justice !"  says  the  dead  man,  when  brought  into  the  presence 
of  the  eternal  Judge.  "  Lo !  I  have  defrauded  no  man  of  his 
dues.  I  have  not  oppressed  the  widow.  I  have  not  borne 
false  witness.  I  have  not  been  slothful.  I  have  broken  faith 
with  no  man.  I  have  starved  no  man.  I  have  slain  no  man. 
I  have  not  enriched  myself  by  unlawful  gains.  I  have  not 
given  short  measure  of  corn.  I  have  not  tampered  with  the 
scales.  I  have  not  encroached  upon  my  neighbor's  field.  I 
have  not  cut  off  the  running  water  from  its  lawful  channel. 
I  have  not  turned-  away  the  food  from  the  mouths  of  the 
fatherless.  Lo !  I  am  pure  !  I  am  pure !" 

This  is  from  the  Negative  Confession  in  the  125th  chapter 

*  See  chap.  iii. 


LITERATURE  AND  RELIGION   OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.     233 

of  the  most  famous  religious  book  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
—The  Book  of  the  Dead.  It  gives  the  measure  of  their  stand- 
ard of  morality.  The  teachers  who  established  that  standard, 
and  the  people  who  endeavored  faithfully  to  live  up  to  it, 
may  have  had  very  childish  and  fantastic  notions  on  many 
points;  they  may  in  one  place  have  put  gold  rings  in  the 
ears  of  their  sacred  crocodiles  ;  they  may  have  shaved  their 
eyebrows  when  their  cats  died ;  but  as  regards  uprightness, 
charity,  justice,  and  mercy,  they  would  not,  I  think,  have 
much  to  learn  from  us,  if  they  were  living  to  this  day  beside 
the  pleasant  waters  of  the  Nile. 


VIGNETTE  FROM  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD. 


BAS-UKLIEF    SLAB    FROM    THE    TOMB    OF  A    ROYAL    SCRIBE   OF  THE  SECOND  DYNASTY, 
IN    THE    ASHMOLEAN    MUSEUM,  OXFORD. 

VII. 

THE  HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  THE  ANCIENT 
EGYPTIANS. 

A  CELEBRATED  definition  of  the  genus  homo  classifies  man 
as  "  a  cooking  animal."  It  is  not  a  bad  definition.  Cooking 
implies  the  knowledge  and  use  of  fire ;  and  not  even  the  most 
intelligent  of  monkeys  has  yet  been  known  to  evoke  sparks 
from  a  stick  and  a  block.  I  should  prefer,  however,  to  de- 
fine man  as  "  a  writing  animal ;"  for  writing  implies  lan- 
guage as  its  starting-point,  and  literature  as  its  goal.  Given 
the  first  barbarian  attempt  at  transmitting  intelligence  by 
means  of  signs  scratched  on  rocks  or  graven  on  the  bark  of 
trees,  it  is  but  a  step — a  long  step,  I  admit — from  the  drift- 
man  to  Shakespeare. 

The  infancy  of  writing  has  much  in  common  with  the  in- 
fancy of  language.  Of  the  actual  beginnings  of  language 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS.   235 

we  have  no  positive  knowledge  beyond  such  evidence  as  is 
furnished  by  the  syllabic  particles  known  as  "roots;"  but  it 
is  quite  certain  that  all  speech  was  at  first  extremely  simple 
—that  words  were  monosyllabic,  and  that  prehistoric  man 
eked  out  his  limited  vocabulary  with  gestures.  He  was,  in 
fact,  a  natural  and  involuntary  pantomimist ;  and  pantomime 
is  picture-action. 

Now,  the  immortal  Dogberry,  when  he  said  that  reading 
and  writing  came  by  nature,  told  quite  half  the  truth. 
Writing  is  a  spontaneous  growth,  like  speech  ;  and,  like 
speech,  it  is  the  offspring  of  necessity.  Man  needs  to  com- 
municate with  his  fellow-man ;  and  when  distance,  or  any 
other  cause,  makes  viva  voce  intercourse  impossible,  he  sets 
his  brains  to  work  to  find  a  substitute  for  spoken  words. 
No  matter  in  what  country,  in  what  age,  or  under  what  cir- 
cumstances, this  problem  is  invariably  solved  in  the  same 
manner. 

Just  as  prehistoric  man  supplements  his  lack  of  words 
with  what  I  have  ventured  to  call  "  picture-action,"  so,  at  a 
later  stage  of  his  career,  he  inevitably  invents  "  picture-writ- 
ing." This  is  true  of  every  ancient  script  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge.  The  writing  of  the  Egyptians  undoubtedly 
began  as  a  picture-writing,  pure  and  simple ;  and  notwith- 
standing the  many  phases  through  which  it  passed  in  the 
course  of  thousands  of  years,  a  picture-writing,  to  some  ex- 
tent, it  continued  to  the  end  of  the  chapter.  The  writing  of 
the  Hittites  was  a  picture-writing ;  and  even  the  arrow-head 
writing  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  and  the  contorted 
characters  of  the  Chinese,  are  abridged  picture-writings  in 
which  the  pictorial  forms  are  yet  in  some  instances  discerni- 
ble. But  even  the  rudest  stage  of  picture-writing  must  have 
been  preceded  by  some  yet  more  primitive  effort,  and  the  di- 
rection taken  by  that  primitive  effort  may  probably  be  traced 
in  a  curious  story  told  by  Herodotus.  He  relates  how  Da- 
rius, when  he  invaded  Scythia,  was  led  on  continually  by  the 
retreating  foe,  till  he  and  his  army  were  outwearied  by  gue- 
rilla warfare  without  being  able  to  bring  the  Scythians  to  a 


236  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

pitched  battle.  At  last,  the  Scythian  princes  despatched  a 
herald  to  the  Persian  camp  with  gifts  for  the  great  King  of 
Kings.  These  consisted  of  a  bird,  a  mouse,  a  frog,  and  five 
arrows.  In  vain  the  Persians  interrogated  the  herald.  He 
but  made  answer  that,  if  they  were  wise,  they  would  find  out 
the  meaning  of  these  things  for  themselves.  Then  Darius, 
the  self-confident,  proclaimed  that  the  Scythian  gifts  signi- 
fied that  they  gave  up  land  and  water,  the  bird  for  swift 
flight,  the  mouse  for  land,  the  frog  for  water,  the  arrows  as 
a  surrender  of  arms.  But  one  Gobryas,  wiser  than  Darius, 
interpreted  the  message  thus : 

''Unless,  O  Persians,  ye  can  turn  yourselves  into  birds 
and  fly  through  the  air,  or  become  mice  and  burrow  under 
the  ground,  or  be  as  frogs  and  take  refuge  in  the  fens,  ye 
shall  never  escape  from  this  land,  but  die  pierced  by  our 
arrows."  (63)  And  this  interpretation  was  the  true  one. 

Now,  in  what  way  were  these  objects  conveyed  to  Darius  ? 

Were  they  strung  in  a  leash,  like  game;  or  carried  as  a 
horseman  might  be  supposed  to  carry  them,  in  a  saddle-bag? 

I  do  not  think  so.  I  believe  that  they  were  pinned  down 
upon  a  piece  of  board,  so  forming  a  high-relief  group  com- 
posed of  natural  objects. 

Now,  we  may  be  very  certain  that  this  message  of  the 
Scythian  generals  was  no  isolated  instance.  It  was  the  cus- 
tomary style  of  polite  letter -writing  in  Scythia  at  that  pe- 
riod, the  Scythians  being  in  just  that  stage  of  barbarism 
which  the  Persians,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  other  great  na- 
tions of  the  East  had  left  behind  and  forgotten.  I  imagine 
that  all  those  nations  had  once  upon  a  time  invented  the 
very  same  method.  To  pin  objects  on  a  board  would  al- 
ways have  been  easier  than  to  draw  them ;  and  our  prehis- 
toric man,  of  whatever  race  or  climate,  would  assuredly  "have 
recourse  to  symbolism  by  means  of  things  before  he  dreamed 
of  symbolism  by  means  of  signs.  Thus,  "  object  -  writing  " 
would  naturally  precede  "  picture-writing." 

The  earliest  writing  of  which  we  have  any  historic  exam- 
ple is  the  hieroglyphic  writing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians; 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  237 

and  the  earliest  of  early  hieroglyphs  are  carved  in  relief.  I 
cannot  help  thinking  that  this  fact  is  profoundly  significant 
— significant  of  the  origin  of  those  hieroglyphs,  a  long  way 
back,  as  "  object-writing."  The  oldest  Egyptian  inscriptions 
are  older  than  the  Great  Pyramid.  The  earliest  date  from 
the  Second  Dynasty,  and  carry  us  back  to  full  four  thousand 
three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  But  they  tes- 
tify to  a  foregone  time,  the  extent  of  which  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate.  For,  although  they  are  the  oldest  extant,  the  lan- 
guage they  embody  has  already  passed  through  its  first 
stages  of  evolution.  Its  grammar  is  formed ;  its  rules  are 
fixed ;  the  foundations  of  style  are  laid.  As  for  the  writing, 
it  is  already  systematized,  and  the  methods  are  fully  devel- 
oped by  which  sense  and  sound  are  expressed. 

Some  day,  perhaps,  as  the  work  of  exploration  goes  on, 
our  labors  may  be  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  yet  earlier 
records.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  most  ancient 
necropolis  of  all  —  the  necropolis  of  the  kings  of  the  First 
and  Second  dynasties — lies  buried  under  a  hundred  feet  of 
sand  round  about  the  base  of  the  Great  Sphinx.  This  huge 
amphitheatre  is  in  course  of  excavation ;  and  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible— possible  and  probable — that  inscriptions  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  the  hieroglyphic  writing  may  there  be  discovered. 

Till  then,  if  we  desire  to  realize  what  the  first  attempts  at 
writing  were  like  in  the  East,  we  must  turn  for  light  to  the 
West.  We  must  go  to  America  for  specimens  of  the  earliest 
picture-writing  of  Mexico,  and  for  the  picture-writing  of  the 
red  Indians.  In  these  we  behold  groups  of  what  are  called 
in  Egyptology  "  ideographs ;"  that  is  to  say,  pictures  of  ob- 
jects arranged  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  sequences  of 
ideas,  but  without  any  of  those  connecting  links  which  lan- 
guage supplies.  The  tribute-lists  of  the  Mexican  kings  con- 
sist of  long  catalogues,  in  which  there  are  signs  for  numerals, 
but  nothing  resembling  a  word.  Thus,  one  hundred  strings 
of  beads,  two  hundred  pitchers  of  honey,  sixteen  hundred 
cacao-nuts,  and  eight  hundred  loads  of  feather  mantles  are 
represented  by  a  string  of  beads,  a  pitcher,  a  basket  of  nuts, 


238 


PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


and  a  feather  mantle  neatly  drawn  and  colored,  with  numer- 
al signs  to  show  how  many  of  each  were  received.  This  is 
the  merest  picture-writing ;  yet,  as  a  system  of  exact  book- 
keeping, it  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired. 

Other  Mexican  documents  of  the  same  period  contain  ac- 
counts of  battles,  executions,  sacrifices,  and  even  family  his- 
tories, in  which  every  fact  is  a  picture.  We  see  a  youth  bid- 
ding good-bye  to  his  father;  starting  upon  a  journey  ;  sitting 
at  the  feet  of  the  sage  by  whom  he  is  to  be  educated ;  serving 
his  apprenticeship  as  a  woodman ;  sending  an  old  woman  to 
treat  with  the  parents  of  the  girl  whom  he  desires  to  wed ; 
and,  finally,  the  marriage  ceremony,  where  bride  and  bride- 
groom are  bound  together  by  a  scarf.  This  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  a  "  nutshell  novel,"  and  it  is  written  in  pictures 
only. 

But  the  picture-writing  of  the  North  American  Indian, 
though  less  graphic,  is  often  more  ingenious  than  the  picture- 
writing  of  the  Mexicans.  I  will  take,  for  example,  a  petition 
addressed  by  certain  Indian  chiefs  to  one  of  the  Presidents 
of  the  United  States,  reclaiming  possession  of  a  chain  of  lakes 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Superior. 

In  this  curious  document,  the  head  man  of  each  tribe  is 
figured  by  the  "  totem,"  or  symbolic  animal,  of  his  clan ;  as 


INDIAN   PETITION 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  230 

the  Crane,  the  Marten,  the  Sloth  Bear,  the  Catfish,  and  so  on. 
These  creatures  are  represented  as  walking  in  procession,  the 
Crane  taking  the  lead,  and  the  Catfish  bringing  up  the  rear. 
The  eye  and  the  heart  of  each  is  carefully  indicated,  the 
heart  being  just  such  a  heart  as  we  absurdly  depict  on  our 
playing-cards  and  valentines.  Beneath  their  feet  is  seen  a 
sheet  of  water — probably  intended  for  Lake  Superior — and 
this  sheet  of  water  communicates  by  a  tributary  stream  with 
the  little  lakes  for  which  our  Indians  are  making  their  peti- 
tion. Now,  from  the  eye  of  the  Crane  is  drawn  one  line 
leading  round  to  the  coveted  lake  district,  and  another  line 
going  off  into  space,  and  supposed  to  lead  to  the  eye  of  the 
President.  Then,  from  the  eyes  of  the  Martens,  the  Sloth 
Bear,  and  the  rest  are  drawn  similar  lines  leading  to  the 
eye  of  the  Crane,  thus  indicating  that  their  views  and  his  are 
the  same.  A  line  is  also  drawn  from  the  heart  of  each  creat- 
ure to  the  heart  of  the  Crane,  showing  that  the  heart's  de- 
sire of  all  is  identical.  For  combined  simplicity  and  subtlety 
this  is  the  best  example  of  pure  picture-writing  with  which 
I  am  acquainted. 

And  here  let  me  say  a  word  about  the  parallel  so  fre- 
quently drawn  between  the  savage  and  prehistoric  man,  and 
about  what  is  erroneously  called  the  "picture-writing"  of 
prehistoric  times.  A  few  fragments  of  bone  scratched  with 
spirited  outlines  of  the  cave-bear,  the  mammoth,  and  other 
extinct  animals — a  few  specimens  of  delicate  bone-carvings 
— a  few  rude  attempts  at  depicting  boats,  men,  and  animals, 
cut  here  and  there  upon  the  face  of  a  cliff  in  Scandinavia  or 
Siberia,  or  the  Maritime  Alps,  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  ages  before  history.  The  immense  antiquity  of  these  is 
self-proven,  since  they  can  only  have  been  executed  by  men 
who  were  contemporary  with  the  animals  they  depicted. 
Those  men  were  the  cave-dwellers  of  the  paleolithic  period 
—that  far-distant  time  when  the  hairy  rhinoceros,  the  mam- 
moth, the  reindeer,  and  the  hyena  ranged  the  forests  of 
France  and  Belgium;  when  there  was  as  yet  no  English 
Channel ;  when  the  Thames  was  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine ; 


240  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

and  when  the  bed  of  the  German  Ocean  was  one  vast  plain 
over  which  great  herds  of  these  formidable  beasts  migrated 
from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north,  as  summer 
was  succeeded  by  winter,  and  winter  by  summer.  There  are 
few  things  in  this  world  more  interesting  than  these  pathetic 
relics  of  our  remotest  ancestors.  They  bring  very  near  to 
us  the  life  of  the  cave-man — that  life  which  was  a  daily  war- 
fare with  beasts  of  prey ;  and  they  are  certainly  the  most 
ancient  specimens  of  tine  art  in  the  world. 


PREHISTORIC  INCISED  OUTLINE  REPRESENTING  THE   MAMMOTH    ON    A   FRAGMENT   OF    BONE, 

From  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  History  of  Civilization. 

But  they  are  not  picture-writings.  They  are  sketches — 
sketches  done  with  a  flint  point  by  an  artist  clad  in  skins, 
who  fashioned  his  own  stone  hatchets,  chipped  his  own  ar- 
row-heads, and  lived  in  an  age  when  there  was  neither  socie- 
ty nor  government. 

This  cave-man  was  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  savage  ;  nor  is 
the  argument  either  just  or  scientific  which  likens  him  to 
the  red  man,  or  the  bush-man,  or  any  other  race  of  untam- 
able aborigines.  He  was  simply  a  man  whose  foot  was  on 
the  lowest  step  of  the  ladder,  but  who  was  steadily  working 
his  way  upward  to  civilization. 

The  historic  age  in  Egypt  begins  with  Mena,  the  first  king 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  241 

of  the  First  Dynasty ;  but,  as  there  was  a  prehistoric  age  in 
Europe,  so  there  was  also  a  prehistoric  age  in  Egypt  —  the 
age  of  the  "  Horshesu."(64) 

The  land  was  divided  at  this  time  into  petty  principalities 
governed  by  hereditary  chieftains.  That  was,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, the  era  of  mere  picture-writing.  How  long  it  took  the 
ancient  Egyptians  to  emerge  from  this  first  stage  of  the  art, 
it  is  impossible  even  to  guess.  Perhaps  they  had  already 
emerged  from  it  when  Mena  reduced  the  primitive  chieftains 
to  a  state  of  vassalage,  and  converted  their  territories  into 
the  provinces  of  his  new  Empire.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  do 
know  quite  exactly,  step  by  step,  how  the  art  and  mystery 
of  the  scribe's  craft  was  developed  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile ;  and  if  we  are  unable  to  put  a  date  to  those  successive 
stages,  we  can  at  all  events  trace  them  with  unerring 
certainty. 

The  first  stage  is  "  ideography,"  or  mere  picture  -  writing, 
in  which  a  man  stands  for  a  man,  a  ship  for  a  ship,  a  camel 
for  a  camel,  and  so  forth.  But  to  construct  a  sentence  by 
means  of  pure  ideography  is  impossible.  Tenses,  parts  of 
speech,  and  all  those  grammatical  contrivances  whereby  we 
connect  or  separate  ideas  are  wanting.  The  very  pictures 
are  liable  to  misinterpretation.  Even  now,  the  helpless  tour- 
ist in  a  foreign  land  is  sometimes  reduced  to  picture-writing 
to  express  his  modest  requirements ;  but  the  result  is  seldom 
satisfactory.  The  Englishman  who  sketched  a  mushroom 
on  the  margin  of  the  bill  of  fare  at  a. Paris  restaurant,  was 
naturally  disappointed  when  the  waiter  brought  him  an  um- 
brella. 

A  long  course  of  umbrellas,  so  to  speak,  and  the  confusion 
to  which  it  must  have  led,  paved  the  way  for  another  kind 
of  picture-writing,  in  which  sounds  were  expressed  instead 
of  things — namely,  pictorial  phonetism ;  and  pictorial  phonet- 
ism  registers  the  second  stage  in  the  art  of  writing.  Now, 
in  pictorial  phonetism  each  figure  stands  for  the  sound  of  the 
word  denoting  the  object  represented,  that  word  being  gen- 
erally, though  not  necessarily,  used  in  a  far-fetched  sense. 

16 


212 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


The  illustration  gives  us  an  example  in  our  own  language; 
an  eye,  a  can,  a  sail,  a  round,  and  a  globe. 


If  we  but  look  at  these  figures,  they 
have  neither  sense  nor  sequence.  They 
are  intelligible  only  when  pronounced : 
"  I  can  sail  round  the  globe." 

This  is  pictorial  phonetism;  and  pic- 
torial phonetism  is,  in  fact,  pictorial 
punning,  of  the  sort  commonly  known 
as  the  rebus,  or  charade. 

From  picture-writing  to  pictorial  phonetism  was  an  enor- 
mous stride;  but  as  we  know  nothing  of  the  condition  of 
the  Egyptian  vocabulary  at  that  remote  time,  we  cannot  pos- 
sibly estimate  to  what  extent  pictorial  phonetism  supplied  a 
means  of  coherent  communication  between  man  and  man. 
That  the  language  contained  a  very  large  number  of  mono- 
syllabic words  is,  however,  certain;  and  as  phonetism  is  nec- 
essarily syllabic,  we  may  assume  that  the  earliest  Eg}Tptian 
scribes  had  a  rich  mine  of  syllabic  forms  to  draw  upon. 
These  syllabic  forms  represent  the  common  objects  of  daily 
life,  the  names  of  which  belonged  to  the  earliest  period  of 
the  language,  when  all  words  were  monosyllabic ;  as :  mer, 
a  hoe ;  ma,  a  sickle ;  neb,  a  bowl,  and  so  forth.  These,  and 

such  as  these,  were  readily 
^—r         adapted  for   phonetic  syl- 
lables,   and    had    the    ad- 

MKK.  MA.  NEB.  ,.     ,       . 

vantage   of  being   so  well 

known  that  a  summary  representation  in  outline  was  at 
once  recognizable.  In  the  autumn  of  1889,  and  again  in  the 
autumn  of  1890,  I  had  the  pleasure  of  examining  Mr.  Pe- 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  243 


trie's  most  interesting  collection  of  domestic  objects  discov- 
ered in  the  ruins  of  Kahun— a  site  of  which  I  have  already 
had  occasion  to  say  something  in  Chapter  IV.  of  this  volume 
—  and  I  well  remember  the  thrill  with  which  I  saw  and 
handled  some  of  these  very  objects.  There  was  a  hoe,  for 
instance,  exactly  like  the  hoe  of  the  hieroglyphs — a  simple 
implement  enough,  of  old  brown  wood,  with  the  ancient 
cord  of  palm-fibre  yet  in  its  place. 

There,  too,  was  the  handle  of  an  adze  —  a  very  familiar 
hieroglyph,  signifying  sotep,  £ — ..  which  often  occurs  in  royal 
names ;  and,  above  all,  there  was  .one  perfect  sickle,  the  han- 


dle and  blade  of  wood,  with  three  little  flint  saws  cemented 
into  the  inner  side  of  the  curve — a  most  interesting  imple- 
ment, and  the  first  of  its  kind  yet  discovered.  All  these 
tools  and  implements  were  of  the  extremely  ancient  period 
of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  about  two  thousand  eight  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  That  is  to  say,  they  were  close 
upon  five  thousand  years  old.  But  that  sickle  carried  with 
it  a  yet  older  history.  It  carried  on  the  traditions  of  a  time 
when  the  use  of  metals  was  unknown  ;  and  it  pointed  back, 
as  with  Time's  own  finger,  to  that  far-off  prehistoric  age 
from  which  its  shape  and  make  had  been  handed  down  with- 
out alteration. 


'244  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Just  as  pictorial  phonetisra  was  evolved  from  ideography, 
or  picture-writing,  so  was  alphabetism  evolved  from  pictorial 
phonetism.  Now,  when  writing  has  reached  the  alphabetic 
stage,  it  enters  upon  the  last,  and  by  far  the  most  important, 
phase  of  its  development.  Every  real  obstacle  to  the  free 
transmission  of  thought  is  overcome.  The  foundations  of 
history  and  science  are  laid.  The  instrument  of  literature  is 
found.  And  it  was  the  ancient  Egyptians  who  found  and 
fashioned  that  instrument.  To  them  we  owe  the  invention 
of  the  first  alphabet — the  most  precious  and  momentous  in- 
vention of  all  time.  And  they  invented  it  so  inconceivably 
long  ago  that  they  were  in  the  full  possession  of  vowels  and 
consonants,  and  of  the  art  of  spelling  words  by  means  of  let- 
ters instead  of  syllables,  when  they  carved  the  oldest  inscrip- 
tions in  existence. 

Other  ancient  writings  passed  through,  the  same  three 
stages  of  development — picture-writing,  pictorial  phonetism, 
and  alphabetic  writing ;  but  the  oldest  alphabets  of  other  na- 
tions are  modern  when  compared  with  that  of  the  Egyptians. 
The  cuneiform  writing  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  after  crys- 
tallizing for  ages  as  a  syllabic  script,  ended  by  becoming  an 
alphabetic  writing  in  the  hands  of  the  Medes  and  Persians ; 
but  by  that  time  the  Egyptians  had  been  using  their  alpha- 
bet for  some  three  thousand  five  hundred  years.  Again,  the 
cuneiform  never  overleaped  the  great  mountain  range  which 
divides  Asia  Minor  from  Asia;  whereas  that  other  alphabet 
whose  origin  lies  so  far  back  in  the  darkness  before  dawn 
that  we  cannot  discern  its  beginning — the  alphabet  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians — was  the  parent  stock  of  the  Phoenician, 
of  the  Greek,  and  of  all  the  alphabets  of  Europe,  including, 
of  course,  our  own. 

But  how  was  the  Egyptian  alphabet  constructed  ?  Upon 
Avhat  principle  was  it  founded  ? 

These  are  questions  upon  which  Egyptologists  differ;  for 
even  Egyptologists  (who  are  by  far  the  most  amiable  people 
on  the  face  of  the  globe)  do  sometimes,  like  doctors,  disa- 
gree. According,  however,  to  the  theory  most  commonly 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  245 

accepted,  the  process  was  effected  in  this  way.  A  monosyl- 
labic word  was  selected,  as,  for  instance,  bu,  the  Egyptian 
for  "  leg,"  represented  in  simple  picture-writing  by  a 

leg,  thus :  II  To  convert  bu  into  b,  it  was  but  necessa- 
ry to  drop  the  final  vowel,  and  let  the  leg  stand  for  I 
only.  The  same  with  ro,  the  mouth,  represented  thus 
in  the  picture-writing.  The  vowel  sound  being 
dropped,  they  obtained  the  letter  /'.  A  reed  of  the  sort 
which  grows  abundantly  in  the  Delta  was  called  aak. 
It  was  conventionally  represented  thus.  M  By  preserv- 
ing only  the  initial  sound  they  obtained  thevowel«. 
In  this  way,  a  certain  number  of  vowels  and  consonants 
were  detached  from  the  old  phonetic  words,  some  being 
dropped  from  the  beginning,  and  some  from  the  end,  of  a 
familiar  monosyllable.  They  were  thus  formed  into  a  regu- 
lar alphabet — the  parent  alphabet  of  all  our  European  series. 

But  the  parent  was,  in  some  respects,  very  unlike  its  chil- 
dren. It  contained  no  letter  e,  no  g,  no  d,  no  z;  but  it  made 
up  for  these  deficiencies  by  extreme  liberality  in  other  ways. 
It  contained  no  less  than  three  forms  of  a,  three  forms  of  t, 
and  two  forms  each  for  i,  u,  m,  n,  k,  and  s.  After  this,  it  is 
some  relief  to  know  that  they  had  but  one  b,  one  p,  and  one/*. 

Here  is  the  hieroglyphic  alphabet  as  it  was  commonly  in 
use  : 

Vowels. . .   fl  a,    <£\  «,     -  -*  «,    (m  or  \\  /,    tK  or  (5  ?/. 
i        j!n>  11  -«r 

Labials . . .    Jj  b,    Dp,    ^ — _    f. 

Liquids  .  .  Y^  or  ^=rr  m,  *~~*  or  £/  n,    <r>  or 
Palatals . .  ffi  k,   ^=^s  k,  &  q. 
Gutturals.   0  h,    [~[]  h,    ©   x- 

Sibilants . .  P  or   — H—  *,  r^-i  s  (  =  English  sti). 

o.^ 

Dentals . . .  c^a  t,    Ok  t,    ••     ~>  0,      "^   t'. 


2-1:6  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

All  these  letters  must  have  stood  originally  for  monosylla- 
bic words  belonging  to  the  earliest  stage  of  the  language; 
but  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  identify  the  source  of  every 
letter,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  oldest 
words  had  become  obsolete  by  the  time  when  the  alphabet 
had  reached  that  point  of  development  at  which  our  knowl- 
edge of  it  begins. 

And  now  it  will  naturally  be  concluded  that  our  Egyp- 
tians threw  aside  their  old  childish  picture-writing,  their 
clumsy  phonetic  picture -punning,  and  all  the  swaddling- 
clothes  in  which  their  infant  literature  had  till  then  been 
smothered.  Not  in  the  least.  The  Egyptians  were,  of  all 
nations,  the  most  conservative.  A  custom,  a  belief,  a  meth- 
od once  adopted  was  never  wholly  relinquished.  Being  in 
possession  of  an  alphabet,  they  proceeded,  of  course,  to  write 
words  as  we  do,  spelling  them  letter  by  letter  ;  but  they  still 
clung  to  the  old  ideographs,  tacking  them  on  at  the  end,  so 
as  to  make  quite  sure  that  there  should  be  no  mistake  about 
the  meaning — like  those  sign-board  artists  who  take  the  wise 
precaution  of  adding,  "  This  is  a  lion,"  or  "  This  is  a  cow." 

Thus,  in  writing  the  word  hetra,  which  is  the  Egyptian  for 

"  horse,"  they  began  by  spelling  it  letter  by 

0    £^   <Z>    (]    letter,  omitting  only  the  vowel  e,  which  did 

not  exist  in  their  alphabet. 

The  word  being  now  spelled,  they  next 
added  the  figure  of  the  horse — a  distinct 
survival  of  the  old  picture-writing.  Finally,  not  being  con- 
tent with  the  word  and  the  ideo- 
graph, they  added  Q  o*  <l>  M  toft  O  the  determina- 
tive sign  representing  a  hide,  a  hide 
being  the  conventional  symbol  for  all  four-footed  animals. 

We  will  take  another  example.  Ab,  "  thirst,"  is  h  II 
spelled  a-b.  Now  ab,  spelled  in  the  same  way,  also  i  -^ 
signifies  a  kid.  We  would  therefore  expect  to  see  the  figure 
of  the  kid  placed  after  the  word  when  used  in  this  sense,  but 
we  would  not  expect  to  see  it  if  the  word  were  used  in  the 
sense  of  "  thirst."  It  was  retained,  however,  all  the  same. 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  247 

merely  to  express  its  original  syllabic  value ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  figure  of  the  kid  is  added  to  emphasize  the 

pronunciation  of  the  word  ab.  ft  JJ  |SSf  Next,  to  show  that 
the  kid  has  nothing  to  do  with  ^*  the  sense  of  the 

word,  but  that  ab  stands  for  "  thirst,"  they  added  the  hiero- 
glyphic sign  for  "  water."  Even  this  was 
not  enough.  To  clinch  the  sense  of  the 
whole,  they  finally  added  the  figure  of  a  man 
with  his  hand  to  his  mouth,  indicating 
his  desire  to  drink.  Thus,  to  a  monosyl-  fl  1  jSNj  ££^  /& 
labic  noun  of  two  letters  only,  we  have  "  A 

three  determinatives  :  a  determinative  of  sound— namely,  the 
kid,  signifying  ab  ;  a  determinative  of  sense — namely,  water; 
and  the  generic  determinative  commonly  in  use  to  denote 
actions  performed  by  the  mouth,  such  as  speaking,  eating, 
and  drinking.  A  more  cumbrous  system  could  not  be  con- 
ceived ;  yet  in  so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  its  complexity  is 
its  greatest  recommendation.  Had  the  Egyptians  been  less 
conservative,  had  they  rejected  their  early  methods  when 
they  invented  the  alphabet,  we  could  not  have  traced  the 
stratification  of  the  language  or  the  writing.  In  such  an 
example  as  the  last  we  clearly  read  the  history  of  both. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  hieroglyphic 
writing  is  the  extraordinary  number  and  variety  of  the  signs. 
Of  these  characters  there  are  about  3000,  including  20  alpha- 
betic letters,  140  phonetic  signs,  and  upward  of  200  deter- 
minatives. This  strikes  us  as  an  embarrassment  of  riches. 
It  is  certainly  not  the  sort  of  writing  which  advertisers  un- 
dertake to  teach  in  twelve  lessons.  At  the  same  time  the 
study  of  hieroglyphs  is  much  more  fascinating,  and  much  less 
difficult,  than  might  be  imagined. 

The  signs,  we"  must  remember,  are  not  mere  arbitrary  and 
meaningless  figures.  They  are  more  or  less  pictorial ;  and 
they  represent  an  immense  number  of  interesting  objects  of 
all  kinds — tools,  weapons,  plants,  and  the  like.  The  amount 
of  information  locked  up  in  these  little  figures  is  quite  incal- 
culable. They  show  us  with  what  kind  of  plough  the  ancient 


24:8  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

Egyptian  husbandman  tilled  the  soil ;  the  sickle  with  which 
he  reaped  his  harvest ;  the  wine-press  in  which  he  crushed  his 
grapes.  There,  too,  we  see  the  drill  and  auger  and  chisel 
of  the  carpenter ;  the  spear  and  shield  of  the  soldier ;  the 
crown  and  sceptre  of  the  Pharaoh ;  the  harp  and  lute  of  the 
minstrel ;  the  ink-bottle  and  pen-case  of  the  scribe.  And 
there,  also,  are  the  lotus  lily  and  papyrus  plant ;  the  croco- 
dile, the  hippopotamus,  and  the  fishes  of  the  Nile ;  the  jackal 
and  hare  of  the  desert ;  the  hawk,  the  pelican,  the  crane,  the 
ibis,  the  vulture,  and  every  other  bird  that  haunts  the  banks 
of  the  great  river.  The  sacred  beetle,  the  hooded  cobra,  the 
eared  cerastes,  the  scorpion,  the  lizard,  and  all  creatures  that 
burrow  in  the  sands  or  lurk  in  rocks  and  caves,  have  like- 
wise their  place  in  this  wonderful  picture-gallery — for  that  is 
just  what  it  is.  A  hieroglyphic  dictionary,  or  a  list  of  hiero- 
glyphic characters,  is  in  fact  a  pictorial  encyclopedia  of  all 
the  objects,  natural  or  artificial,  animate  or  inanimate,  which 
were  known  to  the  Egyptians. 

The  human  figure  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic system,  being  employed  as  a  determinative  sign  in 
many  different  ways. 

It  continually  occurs,  for  instance,  as  a  determinative  of 
gender.      After    such   words    as    "  youth,"    "  slave," 
"  father,"  "  scribe,"  there  follows  the  figure  of  a  man     ^ 
sitting. 

After  "wife,"  "queen,"  "daughter,"  "sister,"  "maiden," 
and  the  like,  \ve  find  the  figure  of  a  seated  woman. 
These  are  generic  determinatives. 

But  there  are  also  special  determinatives.     Say  that 
an  inscription  refers  to  some  high  official,  that  official's  name 
is  followed  by  the  figure  of  a  man  walking  with  a  staff; 
the  staff  being  the  emblem,  of  authority,  as,  indeed,  it 
is  in  Egypt  to  this  day.     Or  say  that  an  old  man  is  in 

question,  then  his  name  is  followed  by  a  stooping  fig- 
ure, leaning  heavily  upon  a  stick ;  this  being  the  de- 
terminative for  age  or  infirmity.     An  act  of  worship 
is  recorded,  and  straightway  the   scribe   adds  a  figure  in 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  249 

the  attitude  of  adoration.  ^  A  man  standing  with  his 
arms  flung  up  above  his  jl  head  signifies  joy  or  exul- 
tation. '  A  man  with  his  hands  and  arms  in  the  po- 
sition }T  of  repelling  means  dissuasion,  turning  back, 
repudi-  ation.  It  is  a  question  of  eating,  drinking, 
or  speaking,  and  we  have  a  squatting  figure  with  the 
hand  to  the  mouth.  Or  it  is  a  question  of  singing  or 
declaiming,  and  the  Q7j  determinative  figure  at  once 
assumes  a  parlia-  mentary  attitude.  4r 

Now,  there  is  a  special  and  peculiar  interest  at-  "**  taching 
to  these  determinatives,  which  are  of  extreme  antiquity, 
and  belong  to  the  earliest  known  stage  of  the  writing. 
They  are  evident  reminiscences  of  the  old  "gesture  lan- 
guage " — that  "  picture  action  "  to  which  I  have  referred  as 
coeval  with  the  beginnings  of  human  speech.  In  this  fash- 
ion our  "  rude  forefathers  "  supplemented  their  scanty  vocab- 
ulary. The  gestures  first  employed  as  a  necessity  were  con- 
tinued at  a  later  period  as  a  matter  of  habit ;  and  thus,  when 
primitive  man  had  so  far  advanced  upon  the  path  of  civiliza- 
tion as  to  attempt  picture-writing,  he  naturally  had  re- 
course to  the  representation  of  picture  action  in  order  to 
indicate  emotions  and  conditions  of  being  for  which,  in  the 
absence  of  an  alphabet,  he  had  no  other  means  of  expression. 

In  addition  to  hieroglyphs  of  the  whole  figure,  there  is 
a  considerable  series  representing  only  parts  of  the  fig- 
ure. 

A  nose,  jz^  for  instance,  was  the  determinative  for 
smelling  or  breathing;  an  ear  stood  for  hear- 

ing ;  a  head  for  command,  prece-    ^     dence,  superior- 

ity.     Any    reference    to     ^      walk-  ing    or    travel- 

ling was   followed   by   a  pair  of  legs ;     ^     and  if  it 

were  a  question  of  returning,  the  legs  were  re-  versed. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said  in  The  Book  of  the  Dead  that  the 
virtuous  Soul  is  privileged  to  go  in  and  out  of  Hades,  the 
sentence  concludes  with  both  determinatives. 

And  this  reminds  me  of  a   similar  device   in 

the  Mexican  picture-writing,  where  the  act  of  going  to  and 


250  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

fro  is  indicated  by  footprints — such  footprints  as  are  made 

by  a  bare  foot  upon  the  sands. 

A,  It  may  be  objected  that  these  are  not  in  the  least 

like  footprints,  for  that  is  an  observation  frequent- 
Al  ly  made  ;  but  it  only  shows  how  seldom  we  see  the 

•(.  print  of  a  bare  foot,  and  how  little  we  cultivate 

*        our  powers  of  observation.     For  the  Mexican  ide- 
ogram is,  in  truth,  strictly  correct.      We  do  not 
fc  ' 

t£       touch  the  ground  with  the  inner  side  of  the  sole  of 

'  the  foot;  consequently  that  side  leaves  no  mark. 

Neither  does  the  little  toe  make  any  sensible  im- 
pression.     It  is,  therefore,  only  the  four  first  toes, 
the  fiat  "tread"  beneath  them,  and  the  outer  side 
of  the  sole  which  are  printed  off  at  each  step. 

But  to  return  to  our  Egyptians.  Here  is  a  sign  com- 
posed of  two  p.  arms,  with  the  hands  open  and  the 
palms  turned  downward.  This  is  the  determi- 

native sign  for  denial.  Here  we  have  a  palpable  sur- 
vival of  the  "  gesture  language."  It  is  precisely  the  action 
of  the  modern  conjurer  who  assures  his  audience  that  he 
has  nothing  whatever  in  his  hands ;  and  it  distinctly  points 
to  an  age  when  force  was  the  law  of  the  strong,  and  theft 
was  the  resource  of  the  weak,  and  every  man's  hand  was 
against  his  neighbor.  Such  an  example  is  a  piece  of  fossil- 
ized history. 

To  those  who  know  anything  (though  never  so  little)  about 
this  curious  and  interesting  subject,  it  sometimes  happens  to 
be  asked  whether  the  study  of  hieroglyphs  is  not,  in  truth, 
of  extraordinary  difficulty.  To  this  question  it  may  be  re- 
plied that  the  study  of  hieroglyphs  is  sufficiently  easy  up  to 
a  certain  point,  after  which  it  becomes  more,  and  increasing- 
ly more,  difficult.  It  needs  but  a  very  little  perseverance  to  en- 
able the  student  to  master  so  much  knowledge  as  may  suffice 
for  the  translation  of  the  ordinary  run  of  funerary  or  dedi- 
catory inscriptions ;  but  it  is  when  he  comes  to  deal  with 
the  archaic  forms  of  the  earliest  periods,  or  the  corrupt  and 
complicated  forms  of  the  latest  periods,  that  his  troubles  may 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  251 

be  said  to  begin.  Apart,  however,  from  archaisms  and  cor- 
ruptions, there  is,  as  it  seems  to  me,  another  and  a  very  real 
difficulty  which  we  moderns  have  to  encounter  when  we  be- 
gin to  study  the  language  and  writing  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. It  is  not  that  the  grammar  is  abstruse ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  grammar  is  singularly  elementary.  It  is  not  that 
the  hieroglyphs  are  puzzling,  or  hard  to  remember.  Being 
pictorial,  they  tell  their  own  story,  and  are  as  easy  to  remem- 
ber as  the  objects  they  represent.  It  is  not  even  the  alarm- 
ing fact  that  there  are  3000  of  them;  for  of  those  3000, 
only  a  limited  number  were  in  common  use.  It  is  for  none 
of  these  reasons.  Our  real  stumbling-block  is  the  amazing 
and  utterly  childlike  simplicity  of  the  whole  thing.  It  is  a 
simplicity  which  belongs  to  the  time  "when  all  the  world 
was  young;"  and  now  that  all  the  world  is  old,  we  do  not 
know  what  to  make  of  it.  We  are  born  with  nineteenth 
century  brains ;  and  we  cannot  put  our  brains  back,  as  if  they 
were  the  hands  of  a  clock.  Yet  it  is  only  by  putting  our 
brains  back  that  we  can  possibly  contrive  to  get  behind  the 
simplicity  of  ancient  Egyptian  thought.  That  simplicity  of 
thought,  joined  to  admirable  powers  of  observation,  a  specu- 
lative turn  of  mind,  and  a  curiously  literal  method  of  reason- 
ing, led  this  singular  people  to  construct  a  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse and  an  elaborate  system  of  religion  which  so  strongly 
affected  their  arts,  their  literature,  and  even  their  hiero- 
glyphs, that  unless  one  knows  what  they  thought  and  be- 
lieved on  a  great  many  subjects,  it  is  impossible  to  grasp 
the  meaning  of  many  an  ordinary  looking  character. 

Here,  for  instance,  is  the  ideograph  for  pet,    the 

"  sky."     It  represents  a  ceiling,  or,  rather,  a  cross- 

beam supporting  a  ceiling.  This  looks  like  a  metaphor;  but 
it  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  The  Egyptians  conceived  the  sky 
to  be  a  ceiling,  or  overhead  platform  of  iron,  along  which 
flowed  the  waters  of  the  heavenly  ocean.  Daily,  from  east 
to  west,  this  heavenly  ocean  was  traversed  by  Ra,  the  sun- 
god,  in  his  golden  bark.  But  at  night  the  iron  ceiling  was 
lighted  by  lamps,  each  star  in  the  firmament  being  a  lamp 


252  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

watched  over  by  an  attendant  god.  We  add  a  star  sus- 
pended by  a  string  (the  loose  end  of  the  string  p 
hangs  down  at  the  other  side  of  the  beam),  and  this 
sign — the  sign  pet  with  the  star  added — is  the  determina- 
tive hieroglyph  signifying  "night,"  "darkness,"  "gloom," 
and  all  such  notions.  These  suspended  lamps  were  the  fixed 
stars,  and  the  gods  of  the  fixed  stars  were  stationary ;  but 
the  planets  were  lamps  carried  on  the  heads  of  wandering 
gods  who  sailed  the  heavens  as  earthly  mariners  sail  the 
seas,  steering  their  barks  by  the  divine  chart,  and  follow- 
ing fixed  courses  according  to  the  seasons.*  In  the  mean 
while  the  iron  ceiling,  which  formed  the  bed  of  the  great 
upper  ocean,  was  supported  at  the  four  corners  by  the  four 
sons  of  Horus  —  the  gods  of  the  four  cardinal  points. 
They  upheld  it  by  means  of  four  props  shaped  thus  :  Y 
—  forked  boughs,  in  fact,  such  as  were  used  to  support 
the  roof  of  the  primitive  house.  When  it  rained,  the  rain 
was  taken  to  be  an  overflow  from  the  superincumbent  ocean ; 
and  if  it  rained  heavily  (which  is  very  unusual  in  every 
part  of  Egypt  except  the  Delta),  then  every  one  was  terri- 
fied lest  the  props  should  be  giving  way,  and  the  ceiling 
and  the  ocean  should  both  be  coming  down  together. 

Here  we  have  the  hieroglyph  for  rain,  consisting  of 

the  ceiling  and  the  four  props.  The  ITTTTJ  props  should, 
of  course,  stand  at  the  four  corners  of  the  heavenly 

platform;  but  the  Egyptians  were  hopelessly  ignorant  of 
perspective,  so  they  placed  them  in  a  row.  These  props,  it 
will  be  observed,  support  nothing,  because  the  ceiling  is  in 
the  act  of  descending,  in  order  to  convey  the  notion  of  rain. 
To  express  a  heavy  storm  (shena),  the  ceiling  is  shown  as 
half-way  down.  We  ourselves  are  wont  to  say,  when  it 
rains  very  heavily,  that  "  the  sky  is  coming  down."  The 
Egyptians  believed  that  it  was  literally  doing  so. 

Now,  they  had  also   a  word  for  "clear,"        -\  K 
"  light,"  "  crystalline,"  "  shining,"  and  the  like         fl  (] 
—the  word  taken.      They  spelled  this  word         <  «  '*  0]  «• 
*  See  chap.  vi. 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING   OF   ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS.  253 

alphabetically,  but  they  required,  as   usual,  a   determina- 
tive   of   the    sense,     and  for  that  purpose  they  had 

recourse  to  another      |YT|      hieroglyph,  which    represents 
the  iron  ceiling  safe-  ly  supported  on  its  four  props. 

This  represents  the  clear  sky  of  Egypt,  when  all  is  bright 
overhead. 

It  remains  to  be  told  how  there  came  to  be  an  overhead 
ocean.  At  the  dawn  of  creation  those  waters  covered  the 
face  of  the  earth,  so  that  there  were  no  living  things  except 
such  as  peopled  the  sea.  Then  came  the  god  Shu,  and  he 
separated  the  waters  from  the  earth,  and  uplifted  them  by 
main  strength,  "  as  a  great  god  can ;"  and  behold,  the  gods 
of  the  cardinal  points  stepped  in  with  their  four  props  and 
fixed  it  up  forever.  Thus  we  see  how  a  whole  chapter  in 
the  history  of  human  thought  may  be  preserved,  like  a  fly 
in  amber,  in  two  or  three  little  hieroglyphs.  Here  we  have 
the  Egyptian  cosmogony,  the  Egyptian  theory  of  the  fixed 
stars  and  the  planetary  system,  and  their  explanation  of  the 
familiar  phenomenon  of  rain. 

We  will  now  turn  to  to,  the  hieroglyph  for  "  land."  This 
sign  is  not  of  such  far-reaching  meaning  as  the  last; 
but  it  is  a  very  interesting  sign,  and  I  believe  that  it 
has  not  been  analyzed  till  now.  Here  we  see  the  level 
plain — the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  lower  signs  indicate 
what  is  below  the  surface.  The  object  shaped  as  an  acute 
angle  is  a  cutting  instrument — a  wedge ;  it  indicates  min- 
ing. The  three  small  balls  stand  for  metals.  The  verti- 
cal line  means  a  sunk  shaft  —  the  boring,  perhaps,  for  an 
artesian  -  well.  So  here  we  have  the  earth  and  its  riches, 
metals  and  water,  and  the  little  implement  which  sym- 
bolizes the  enterprise  and  industry  of  man. 

This  is  the  ideograph  for  a  city,  ~  used  also  as  a  deter- 
minative sign  after  the  name  of  any  special  city.  This 
object  is  described  in  hieroglyphic  dictionaries  as  a  "cake," 
and  it  certainly  does  resemble  a  kind  of  hot  cross-bun  fre- 
quently represented  in  pictures  of  offerings ;  but  the  sign 
(pronounced  nu)  is  really  intended  for  a  walled  town,  with 


254  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

its  two  main  streets  crossing  at  right  angles.  At  Benha, 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Athribis,  the  lines  of  these 
two  main  streets  are  yet  clearly  distinguishable,  as  doubtless 
they  are  in  other  places. 

Strange  as  the  statement  may  seem,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that  we  are  all,  quite  unconsciously,  using  many  and  many 
an  ancient  Egyptian  word  to  this  day,  like  Moliere's  Monsieur 
Jourdain,  Avho  had  been  talking  prose  all  his  life  without 
knowing  it.  For  instance,  the  land  of  Egypt  was  known  by 
many  names  to  its  ancient  people  —  as  Ta-meri,  the  "  Be- 
loved Land  ;"  Ne-hi,  the  "  Land  of  the  Sycamore ;"  Khem  or 
Khemit,  the  "  Black  Land,"  meaning  the  rich,  dark  soil  an- 
nually deposited  by  the  inundation ;  and  so  on.  In  the  same 
way,  Ireland,  Erin,  Hibernia,  and  the  Emerald  Isle,  mean  one 
and  the  same.  Now,  this  word  khem,  khem-t,  khemit,  or  khemi, 
has  many  applications.  It  is  the  name  of  a  god,  Khein,(6&) 
the  deity  who  presided  over  productiveness  and  "  the  kindly 
fruits  of  the  earth."  In  this  sense,  he  was  also  the  god  of 
curative  herbs  and  simples,  and  so  became  associated  in  the 
popular  mind  with  the  arts  of  healing.  '  Hence,  from  kkem, 
our  chemist  and  chemistry.  But  Mem  also  meant  "  black," 
and  in  this  connection  it  survives  in  "  alchemy,"  the  "  black 
art."  Here  we  have  the  hieroglyphic  group 
for  Khem-t,  Egypt.  The  first  sign  is  a  syl- 
labic hieroglyph  standing  for  khem — "  black." 
The  owl,  m,  confirms  the  final  consonant; 
and  the  half  sphere,  t,  is  the  feminine  determinative  —  a 
country,  a  province,  a  city,  being  feminine  in  Egyptian,  as 
in  many  other  tongues,  both  ancient  and  modern.  The  first 
sign  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained,  but  I  venture  to 
think  that  its  meaning  is  not  far  to  seek.  In  the  square 
marked  off  by  two  diagonals,  I  recognize  an  ideograph  for 
territory ;  and  in  these  parallel  lines  the  levels  at  which  the 
dark  alluvial  mud  is  freshly  deposited  every  year.  The  up- 
permost line  is  the  shortest,  because  the  Nile  begins  to  sub- 
side again  as  soon  as  it  has  touched  its  highest  point ;  and 
the  lowest  line  is  the  longest,  because  it  represents  the  nor- 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  255 

mal  level  of  the  river.  These  words  have  come  to  us  by  a 
somewhat  circuitous  route,  through  the  Arabic  ;  the  original 
word  Tehem  having  first  been  picked  up  by  the  Arab  con- 
querors of  Egypt,  and  by  them  handed  on  to  the  Barbary 
Moors,  who  carried  it  to  Spain,  whence  it  has  spread  through 
Europe. 

The  word  "camel"  is 


Egyptian.     It  is  spelled  -xro;  i     JT       I 

,  7       rrn  &'  &  tnd,       O,  Cl  I 

thus:  K-a-ma-a-a-a-l.  Ihe 

a  was  evidently  very  broad,  for  it  is  repeated  four  times, 
the  whole  ending  with  the  generic  determinative  of  a  hide, 
as  in  the  word  hetra,  or  "  horse." 

Although  the  cocoa-palm  is  not  native  to  the  soil,  the  name 
of  the  cocoa-nut,  strange  to  say,  is  of  Egyptian  descent.  A 
well-known  text  mentions  a  palm  sixty  cubits  high,  the  fruit 
of  which  contained  nuts  in  which  there  was  water  ;  and  these 
nuts  are  called  ku-ku.  The  little  circle  is 

the  ideograph  of  the  ,,  t^  r,  "^\  O  nut,  and  the  three 
vertical  strokes  signi-  fy  plurality. 

The   Egyptian  for  "knife  "is 

kat  ;  whence  our  "cut."  And  here  is  the  name  of 
a  precious  wood  which  often  figures  as  tribute  brought  by 
Ethiopian  vassals,  and  which  is  invariably  painted  black. 
Here  we  have  a  phonetic  syllable 

pronounced  Ila;   the  leg,  I;    the     pg  /wwvs     NX     A 

zigzag  line,  n  •  the  two  slanting  Ha  b  n  i  * 
lines  for  the  vowel  *,  pronounced 

"  e  ;"  and  finally  the  conventional  determinative  of  a  tree. 
The  whole  spells  hdbni,  Avhich  is  "  ebony."  So  here  again 
is  a  word  in  which  every  stage  of  the  hieroglyphic  writ- 
ing is  present  —  the  old  picture-writing,  preserved  in  the 
determinative  tree  ;  the  punning  phonetic  syllable,  of  which 
the  actual  meaning  is  "house;"  and  the  alphabetic  spelling 
in  5,  n,  and  i. 

Another  coveted  Ethiopian  product  was  kami,  a  substance 
imported  from  the  Somali  coast  and  from  the  Soudan.  This 
word  passed  into  the  Greek  as  kommi;  thence  into  the  Latin 


256  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

as  gummi,  and  now  it  is  "  gum."  This  is  the  gum  which 
we  call  "gum-arabic;"  and  it  continues  to  be  an  article  of 
commerce,  exported  from  the  Soudan  through  Egypt,  to 
this  day.  At  Assuan,  on  the  frontier  of  Nubia,  we  may 
see  the  swarthy  Soudanese  traders  camping  out,  surrounded 
by  great  bales  of  this  gum  sewn  up  in  buffalo  hides,  waiting 
for  the  cargo-boats  which  shall  carry  their  goods  to  Cairo, 
just  as  in  ancient  days  they  journeyed  with  the  self-same  ar- 
ticle of  tribute  or  commerce  to  Thebes  and  Memphis. 

This  brief  sketch  of  the  origin  and  development  of  the 
hieroglyphic  writing  has  already  run  to  so  great  a  length 
that  I  must  pass  but  lightly  over  much  else  on  which  I  would 
fain  have  dwelt  longer.  Nothing  has  yet  been  said  about 
the  cursive  writings  of  the  Egyptians ;  but  they  had  two  cur- 
sive writings — namely,  the  "  hieratic,"  and  .the  "  demotic." 
For,  as  time  went  on,  and  the  requirements  of  social  and  po- 
litical life  became  more  complex,  there  inevitably  arose  the 
demand  for  a  popular  script.  It  would  have  been  impossible 
for  literature  to  flourish,  as  it  did  flourish  in  Egypt  from  the 
Eleventh  Dynasty  onward,  had  the  scribes,  the  poets,  the  let- 
ter-writers, and  the  professional  copyists  been  fettered  by  a 
system  so  complicated  and  so  cumbrous  as  the  hieroglyphic. 
They  were  bound  to  discover  some  way  of  abridging  it — of 
rendering  it  more  flexible,  more  rapid,  more  simple.  At  what 
time  they  made  their  first  efforts  in  this  direction  we  know 
not*  But  we  do  know  that  by  the  time  of  the  Eleventh  Dy- 
nasty they  were  already  in  possession  of  a  bold  cursive  writ- 
ing, and  of  a  material  upon  which  to  employ  it.  That  writing 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  hieroglyphic  writing  as  our 
running-hand  bears  to  printed  matter.  It  is  known  as  the 
hieratic  script ;  and  the  material  invented  for  the  use  of  the 
scribe  was  papyrus. 

Just  as  our  own  systems  of  cursive  writing  have  undergone 
many  changes  in  the  course  of  centuries,  so  the  hieratic 
writing  of  the  Egyptians  varied  from  age  to  age,  the  ten- 
dency of  these  variations  being  persistently  in  the  direction 
of  economy.  It  was  massive  and  square-cut  under  the  Elev- 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  257 

enth  and  Twelfth  dynasties ;  that  is  to  say,  from  about  two 
thousand  eight  hundred  to  two  thousand  five  hundred  years 
before  our  era.  Under  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  dy- 
nasties it  lost  something  in  the  way  of  force,  and  gained 
something  in  the  way  of  elegance.  Later  still  it  became 
small  and  cramped,  and,  if  I  may  be  permitted  the  use  of  a 
word  so  unacademic,  "  niggling." 


®fa^ 


HIERATIC    PAPYRUS    OF   PRINCESS    NESIKHONSU. 

Twenty-first  Dynasty. 

But  even  the  hieratic — itself  an  abridgment — ceased  by- 
and-by  to  satisfy  the  demand  for  increased  simplicity  and 
speed,  and  a  third  form  of  writing,  which  was  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  hieratic,  came  into  use.  This  abridgment  of 
an  abridgment — which  stands  to  hieratic  as  our  short-hand 
stands  to  ordinary  running-hand  —  is  called  the  "demotic." 
It  makes  its  first  appearance  as  a  fully  developed  system 
about  the  time  of  the  Twenty -fifth  Dynasty,  some  seven 

17 


258  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

hundred  years  before  our  era.  By  this  time  the  Egyptians 
had  become  a  highly  commercial,  and  an  extremely  litigious, 
people.  They  bought  and  sold,  borrowed,  mortgaged,  and 
lent  with  feverish  activity,  and  were  so  perpetually  quarrel- 
ling over  their  bargains,  their  leases,  their  securities,  their 
marriage-settlements,  and  their  inheritances,  that  a  writing 
better  adapted  to  legal  and  commercial  purposes  than  the 
literary  hieratic  was  urgently  needed.  As  usual,  the  demand 


DEMOTIC    WRITING. 

From  a  funerary  inscription  written  with  the  reed  pen  upon  a  wooden  tablet. 

created  the  supply,  and  demotic  became  the  ordinary  script 
of  the  people.  In  the  mean  while  neither  the  hieroglyphic 
nor  the  hieratic  writings  had  wholly  died  out.  The  hiero- 
glyphic continued  in  use  for  stone-cut  inscriptions  as  long  as 
the  ancient  language  endured  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  found 
on  monuments  of  the  later  Roman  period,  the  names  of 
all  the  Caesars,  from  Augustus  to  Deems,  being  transliter- 
ated into  Egyptian,  carved  in  hieroglyphic  characters,  and 
enclosed  in  the  royal  ovals  of  the  Pharaohs,  on  temples  and 
tablets  dating  from  the  twenty-seventh  to  the  two  hundred 
and  fiftieth  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  hieratic  writing  was  more  short-lived  than  the  hiero- 
glyphic. Beginning  from  the  time  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty, 
it  continued  to  be  employed  for  literary  purposes  down  to 
the  period  of  the  Twenty-fourth  or  Twenty-fifth  Dynasty, 
when  it  was  finally  superseded  by  the  demotic.  Our  muse- 
ums contain  thousands  of  hieratic  papyri,  consisting  chiefly 
of  extracts  from  The  Book  of  the  Dead,  besides  works  on 
medicine  and  mathematics,  tales,  poems,  essays,  hymns,  mag- 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  259 

ical  formulas,  correspondence,  State-papers,  and  the  like  ;*  and 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  are  tens  of  thousands  of 
demotic  documents  in  the  museums  of  Turin,  Berlin,  Vienna, 
Paris,  Leyden,  and  London.  These  are  chiefly  law-deeds,  ac- 
counts, letters,  and  the  miscellaneous  memoranda  of  a  tradino- 
population.  The  hieratic  documents  are  principally  written 
on  papyrus.  The  demotic  documents  are  scrawled  on  all 
kinds  of  materials  —  on  papyrus,  parchment,  flakes  of  lime- 
stone, potsherds,  and  the  like. 

Just  as  I  have  compared  the  three  writings  of  the  Egyp- 
tians with  type,  running  -  hand,  and  short -hand,  so  I  may 
roughly  classify  them  as  the  monumental,  literary,  and  com- 
mercial scripts  of  that  ancient  people. 

Of  the  language  itself,  and  of  the  laws  by  which  it  was 
governed,  a  few  words  must  be  said.  The  actual  source  of 
the  Egyptian  language  is  wrapped  in  obscurity.  Some  great 
authorities  make  it  of  Aryan  origin,  while  others  class  it  with 
the  Semitic  tongues.  In  all  probability,  neither  classification 
is  strictly  correct.  The  Egyptian  belongs,  however,  to  what 
is  called  the  "  Khamitic  "  family  of  tongues — a  group  which 
includes  the  Ethiopian,  Libyan,  Berber,  and  other  African 
languages.  In  all  these  the  feminine  takes  the  letter  t  either 
as  a  prefix  or  a  suffix;  and  they  all  conjugate  the  verb  by 
agglutination.  The  one  and  only  really  certain  fact  is  that 
the  Khamitic  and  Semitic  languages  are  derived  from  a  com- 
mon source.  Their  grammatical  system  is,  in  certain  essential 
points,  the  same.  Many  of  their  roots  are  identical;  their 
plural  forms  are  closely  related  ;  and  in  all  the  feminine  de- 
terminative is  alike.  But  these  two  linguistic  families — off- 
shoots from  one  parent  stem — separated  in  the  ages  before  his- 
tory, that  parent  being  itself  but  a  prehistoric  idiom  of  very 
limited  range  and  unknown  antiquity.  Whether  its  home 
were  in  the  Hindoo  Kush,  or  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  or 
the  highlands  of  Scandinavia,  may  perhaps  forever  remain  an 
open  question. 

The   Egyptian  grammar  is  of  most  elementary  barren- 

*  See  chap.  vi. 


260  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

ness.  Its  structure,  as  compared  Avith  the  grammar  of  oth- 
er languages,  is  like  the  structure  of  the  polyp  as  com- 
pared with  the  complex  organism  of  the  higher  animals. 
Some  parts  of  speech  are  altogether  lacking.  In  the  series 
of  personal  pronouns,  for  example,  there  is  no  first  person 
plural.  It  exists  as  a  suffix  to  the  verb,  but  not  as  a  word. 
Among  the  conjunctions  there  is  no  equivalent  for  "and." 
If  an  Egyptian  needed  to  say  "  and "  he  used  "  with ;"  so 
that  instead  of  saying  "  you  and  I,"  he  would  say  "  you  with 
me."  As  a  rule,  however,  he  omitted  the  conjunction  in  this 
sense.  As  for  the  Egyptian  verb,  it  has  been  concisely  de^ 
scribed  by  Mr.  Le  Page  Eenouf  as  "  expressing  being  or  ac- 
tion without  any  reference  to  time,  or  to  the  conception  of  the 
speaker,"  and  as  having  "  neither  tenses,  moods,  voices,  nor 
conjugations."  The  stock  of  prepositions  and  of  compound 
prepositions  was,  however,  very  considerable,  consisting  of 
some  sixteen  or  seventeen  simple  forms,  and  over  thirty  com- 
pound forms,  many  of  which  appear  to  us  quite  superfluous. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the  rudimen- 
tary character  of  the  Egyptian  grammar  helps  to  make  it 
one  jot  easier.  On  the  contrary,  it  would  be  a  great  deal 
easier  if  it  were  a  little  more  difficult. 


THOTH. 

The  Egyptian  god  of  writing. 


VIII. 
QUEEN  HATASU, 

AND  HER  EXPEDITION  TO  THE  LAND  OF  PUNT. 

QUEEN  HATASU  has  been  happily  described  as  the  Queen 
Elizabeth  of  Egyptian  history;  and  she  was  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  most  extraordinary  women  in  the  annals  of  the  an- 
cient East.  A  daughter  of  Thothmes  L,  third  Pharaoh  of 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  and  of  his  wife,  Queen  Ahmes  j^e- 
fertari,  she  inherited  sovereign  rights  in  virtue  of  her  mater- 
nal descent  from  the  old  Twelfth  Dynasty  line.  (66) 

It  has  pleased  historians  to  rank  Thothmes  II.  as  the  im- 
mediate successor  of  Thothmes  I.,  and  to  place  the  reign 
of  Queen  Hatasu  between  the  reigns  of  her  two  brothers, 
Thothmes  II.  and  Thothmes  III.  By  some  she  is  described 
as  Queen  Consort  during  the  reign  of  Thothmes  II.,  and  as 
Queen-regent  during  the  earlier  years  of  the  reign  of  Thoth- 
mes III.  By  others,  and  most  emphatically  by  Dr.  Brugsch, 
she  is  stigmatized  as  a  usurper.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, Hatasu  was  actually  Queen,  and  Queen-regnant,  during 
the  lifetime  of  her  father.  Her  accession,  therefore,  dates 
from  a  time  long  preceding  that  of  her  brother,  Thothmes  II. 
An  important  historical  inscription  sculptured  on  one  of  the 
pylons  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Karnak  records  this  event  in 
eighteen  columns  of  hieroglyphic  text,  which  were  copied 
and  translated  by  the  late  Vicornte  E.  de  liougc  in  1872. 


262  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

The  inscription  is  preceded  by  a  bas-relief  sculpture  repre- 
senting Thothmes  I.  in  adoration  before  the  Theban  triad, 

O  * 

Amen,  Maut,  and  Khonsu.  The  bas-relief  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  inscription  are  still  in  fair  preservation,  but  the 
lower  part  of  the  text  is  unfortunately  much  mutilated. 
When  perfect  this  inscription  would  seem  to  have  contained 
a  detailed  history  of  the  King's  life  and  reign  up  to  the  time 
at  which  it  was  executed.  It  records  his  birth,  and  relates 
that  he  put  down  various  rebellions  which  had  broken  out  in 
Lower  Egypt  and  in  the  foreign  provinces.  Suddenly,  in  the 
eleventh  column  of  the  text,  the  narrative  form  is  dropped, 
and  Thothmes  I.  addresses  the  god  Amen  face  to  face. 

"  Behold,"  he  says,  "  I  make  offerings  unto  thee ;  I  pros- 
trate myself  before  thee;  I  bestow  the  Black  Land  and  the 
Red  Land  (67)  upon  my  daughter,  the  Queen  of  Lower  and 
Upper  Egypt,  Makara,  living  eternally.  As  thou  hast  done 
for  me." 

Further  on,  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  columns, 
Thothmes  reverts  to  the  throne-name  of  Hatasu,  saying  that 
it  is  given  to  her  by  the  decree  of  Amen  himself,  to  which 
he  adds :  "  Thou  hast  transmitted  the  world  into  her  power ; 
thou  hast  chosen  her  as  King." 

In  these  passages  there  is  more  than  meets  the  eye  at  first 
sight.  A  "  throne-name,"  sometimes  called  a  "  solar-name," 
inasmuch  as  it  affirms  the  direct  descent  of  the  reigning  mon- 
arch from  Ra,  the  greatest  of  the  solar  deities,  was  never 
assumed  by  a  mere  regent,  but  marked  the  actual  accession 
of  a  sovereign.  It  was  equivalent  to  the  act  of  coronation, 
and  probably  was  in  general  accompanied  by  some  such 
ceremony.  De  Rouge,  in  translating  this  very  significant 
text,  remarks  that  Thothmes  L,  actuated,  no  doubt,  by  some 
reason  of  State  policy,  had  "  during  his  lifetime  presented  his 
daughter  as  Queen  to  the  god  Amen,  and  had  given  her  a 
solar  cartouche  or  throne-name ;"  that  is  to  say,  he  had  in- 
vested her  with  all  the  insignia  of  actual  royalty,  not  mak- 
ing her  a  mere  regent  or  coadjutor.  Hence  it  would  seem 
that  De  Rouge  recognized  in  this  act  of  Thothmes  I.  a 


QUEEN  HATASU.  263 

solemn  transfer  of  the  regal  power;(68)  and  this  transfer  was 
evidently  made  before  the  altar  of  the  god  in  the  Great 
Temple  of  Amen.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  difficult  to  guess  what 
those  "reasons  of  State  policy"  may  have  been  by  which 
Thothmes  I.  was  actuated  in  taking  this  strange  and  im- 
portant step.  It  may  well  have  been  that  Queen  Ahmes 
ISTefertari,  his  wife,  was  dead,  and  that  his  own  position  was 
therefore  less  stable,  hers  being  the  direct  legitimate  right 
in  the  female  line.  By  placing  his  and  her  daughter  upon 
the  throne,  he  thus  re-established  the  continuity  of  that  line 
and  strengthened  his  own  hands,  which  probably  none  the 
less  continued  to  hold  the  reins  of  government. 

The  title  assumed  by  Hatasu  on  the  occasion  of  her  proc- 
lamation affords  a  good  example  of  the  principle  upon  which 
these  throne  or  solar  names  were  framed.  It  is  composed  of 
three  hieroglyphic  signs— MA,  represented  by  the  sitting  fig- 
ure of  the  Goddess  of  Truth,  Law,  and  Justice ;  KA,  repre- 
sented by  the  hieroglyph  of  the  uplifted  arms,  and  signifying 
Life  ;*  and  the  sun-disk,  representing  RA,  the  supreme  solar 
god  of  the  universe.  This  combination  of  hieroglyphs,  though 
apparently  so  simple,  is  capable  of  several  interpretations. 
By  some  it  would  be  translated  as  "  Ma,  the  Image  of  Ea ;" 
by  others  as  "  Ma,  the  Soul  of  Ra ;"  by  others,  again,  as 
"Ma,  the  Double  of  Ra;"  but  the  interpretation  which  most 
commends  itself  to  me  is  "  Ra,  the  Life  of  Ma,"  with  the 
meaning  that  Truth,  Law,  and  Justice  are  the  vital  mani- 
festations of  Ra.  The  main  point  as  regards  the  solar  car- 
touches is,  however,  as  I  have  already  said,  the  direct  affilia- 
tion of  the  sovereign  to  the  visible  source  of  Light  and  Life. 
And  this,  be  it  observed,  was  in  no  mere  symbolic  sense.  The 
Pharaohs  claimed  to  be  literally  and  lineally  descended  from 
Ra ;  and,  which  is  yet  more  strange,  their  subjects  appear  to 
have  believed  in  this  amazing  dogma. 

Whether  the  marriage  of  Ilatasu  took  place  before  or 
after  her  proclamation  in  the  Temple  of  Amen  we  do  not 

*  See  Lecture  IV.,  on  "The  Origin  of  Portrait  Sculpture." 


264  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

know ;  but  she  was,  at  all  events,  wedded  while  yet  quite 
young  to  her  eldest  brother,  Prince  Thothraes,  afterwards 
Thothmes  II.  A  recent  discovery  has  for  the  first  time  re- 
vealed the  exact  relationship  which  subsisted  between  this 
prince  and  Hatasu.  A  funerary  chapel  dedicated  to  the 
memory  of  Prince  Uatmes,  a  deceased  son  of  Thothmes  I., 
as  well  as  to  some  other  members  of  that  king's  family,  was 
discovered  in  1887  by  M.  Grebaut,  a  little  to  the  northward 
of  the  Ramesseum  at  Thebes.  (69)  Many  interesting  histor- 
ical stelae  and  other  monuments  were  found  in  the  course  of 
the  excavation  of  this  chapel,  the  most  important  being  a 
life-sized  sitting  statue  of  a  certain  Queen  Mautnefer,  hitherto 
unknown  to  history.  This  Mautnefer  proves,  according  to 
the  inscription  on  her  statue,  to  have  been  a  wife  of  Thoth- 
mes I.,  and  mother  of  Thothmes  II.,  by  whom  her  effigy  was 
erected  in  the  chapel  of  Uatmes.  It  would  thus  appear  that 
Thothmes  I.  had  two  legitimate  wives — namely,  Ahmes  Ne- 
fertari,  the  royally  descended  mother  of  Hatasu,  and  Maut- 
nefer, a  lady  evidently  of  inferior  lineage,  the  mother  of  the 
elder  Prince  Thothmes.  As  for  the  younger  Thothmes,  af- 
terwards Thothmes  III.,  he  was  of  quite  humble  descent 
maternally,  being  a  son  of  Thothmes  I.  by  a  Lady  As-t,  whose 
name  was  discovered  ten  years  ago  upon  the  inscribed  wind- 
ing-sheet of  Thothmes  III.,  now  preserved  in  the  Museum 
of  Ghizeh.('°)  This  lady  is  therein  entitled  Suten  Maut 
(Royal  Mother),  but  not  also  Suten  Hem-t  (Royal  Wife),  as 
would  have  been  the  case  with  an  actual  queen;  thus  in- 
dicating that  she  was  merely  a  lady  of  the  royal  hareem. 
The  elucidation  of  this  piece  of  family  genealogy  is  very  valu- 
able, inasmuch  as  it  shows  Hatasu  to  have  been  but  half- 
sister  to  her  two  brothers,  while  it  at  the  same  time  empha- 
sizes the  inferior  rank  of  the  elder  prince,  and  the  vastly 
inferior  rank  of  the  younger.  Hatasu,  in  short,  was  not 
only  "Heiress -Princess"  in  right  of  her  maternal  descent, 
but  she  was  also  the  only  surviving  offspring  of  Queen 
Ahmes  Nefertari ;  and  this,  in  any  case,  would  have  fur- 
nished an  important  reason  for  her  marriage  with  Thothmes 


SITTING    STATUE    OK    HATASD. 

In  the  Berlin  Museum. 


QUEEN   HATASU.  267 

II.,  whose  succession  must  otherwise  have  lacked  the  pres- 
tige of  old  historic  descent. 

Hatasu  appears  to  have  been  the  mother  of  only  two 
children,  both  daughters— Hatasu-Meri  and  Keferu-Ra.  The 
latter  died  in  infancy,  whereas  Hatasu-Meri  inherited  the 
legitimate  rights  of  her  royal  mother  and  became  "Heiress- 
Princess,"  thus  excluding  the  younger  Thothmes  from  the 
order  of  succession.  Hereupon,  having  regard  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  empire  and  to  the  further  consolidation  of  family 
ties,  Hatasu  wedded  her  little  daughter  to  the  younger  of 
her  two  half-brothers.  This  marriage  took  place  during  the 
lifetime  of  Thothmes  II.,  and  it  would  even  seem  as  though 
tne  juvenile  couple  were  nominally  associated  with  their 
elders  upon  the  throne  of  Egypt,  since  it  is  not  possible 
otherwise  to  account  for  the  fact  that  the  cartouches  of 
Thothmes  II.  and  Thothmes  III.  are  found  in  conjunction 
upon  certain  monuments  of  this  period.  We  thus  see  how 
carefully  Hatasu  protected  the  interests  of  that  younger 
brother  whose  throne  she  is  supposed  to  have  usurped. 

After  a  reign  of  about  a  dozen  years,  Thothmes  II.  died, 
and  was  buried  with  his  fathers.  Then,  for  fifteen  years, 
Hatasu  seems  to  have  resumed  her  full  hereditary  rights,  and 
to  have  reigned  alone.  From  this  time  forth,  she  assumed  the 
style  and  title  of  a  Pharaoh ;  and  it  is  literally  as  a  Pharaoh 
that  we  find  her  represented  on  monuments  of  this  period. 
In  contemporary  wall-paintings  and  bas-relief  sculptures,  we 
see  Queen  Hatasu  in  male  attire,  wearing  the  short  kilt  and 
sandals,  and  crowned  with  the  Kepersh,  or  war-helmet,  habit- 
ually worn  by  the  Pharaohs  on  the  field  of  battle.  Some- 
times we  see  her  adorned  with  a  false  beard;  but  this  is 
perhaps  a  touch  of  delicate  flattery  on  the  part  of  the  artist. 

Meanwhile,  the  Queen's  younger  brother,  who  had  been 
brought  up  in  the  Great  Temple  of  Amen  and  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  Chief  God  of  Thebes,  took,  apparently,  no 
share  in  the  government  of  the  country.  It  is  not,  in  fact, 
till  the  sixteenth  year  after  the  deatli  of  Thothmes  II.  that 
we  find  the  name  of  Thothmes  III.  occurring  in  conjunction 


268  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

with  that  of  Hatasu  upon  a  rock-cut  tablet  in  Sinai.  Four 
years  later  still,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  nominal  reign, 
when  it  is  probable  that  the  great  Queen  either  died  or  abdi- 
cated— we  know  not  which— Thothmes  III.  began  that  ex- 
traordinary military  career  which  carried  the  fame  of  his 
arms  into  the  farthest  corners  of  the  known  world  of  his 
time.  How  long  Hatasu  continued  to  hold  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment it  is  impossible  to  say,  as  we  have  no  record  of  the 
exact  length  of  her  reign. 

Throughout  the  years  of  Hatasu's  sole  reign  the  land  of 
Egypt  appears  to  have  enjoyed  an  interval  of  profound 
peace,  during  which  she  taxed  the  resources  of  her  empire 
by  repairing  those  shrines  and  temples  which  had  gone  to 
ruin  during  the  period  of  Hyksos  rule ;  by  embellishing 
and  enriching  Karnak;  and  by  erecting  a  sumptuous  tem- 
ple in  Western  Thebes.  In  those  works  she  proved  herself 
to  be  one  of  the  most  magnificent  builder  -  sovereigns  of 
Egypt.  Of  the  victories  of  Thothmes  111.,  there  remain  only 
the  long  lists  of  conquered  nations  and  captive  cities  which 
he  caused  to  be  sculptured  on  the  pylons  of  Karnak ;  but  the 
Temple  of  Dayr-el-Bahari  and  the  two  great  obelisks  of  Kar- 
nak, much  as  they  have  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Time  the 
Destroyer,  are  to  this  day  permanent  records  of  the  tranquil 
reign  of  Hatasu. 

Numerous  and  stately  as  were  the  obelisks  erected  in 
Egypt  from  the  period  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  down  to  the 
time  of  Roman  rule,  those  set  up  by  Hatasu  in  advance  of 
the  fourth  pylon  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Karnak  are  the  lof- 
tiest, the  most  admirably  engraved,  and  the  best  propor- 
tioned. One  has  fallen ;  the  other  stands  alone,  one  hundred 
and  nine  feet  high  in  the  shaft,  cut  from  a  single  flawless 
block  of  red  granite.  An  inscription  engraved  on  the  plinth 
of  the  one  yet  erect  states  that : 

"Amen  Khnum  Hatasu,  the  Golden  Horus,  Lord  of  the 
two  Lands,  hath  dedicated  to  her  father  Amen  of  Thebes, 
two  obelisks  of  Mahet  stone  [red  granite],  hewn  from  the 
quarries  of  the  South.  Their  summits  [pyramidions]  were 


QUEEN  HATASU.  269 

sheathed  with  pure  gold,  taken  from  the  chiefs  of  all  na- 
tions. 

"  His  Majesty  gave  these  two  gilded  obelisks  to  her  father 
Amen,  that  her  name  should  live  forever  in  this  temple. 

"  Each  is  one  single  shaft  of  red  Mahet  stone,  without  joint 
or  rivet.  They  are  seen  from  both  banks  of  the  Nile,  and 
when  Ra  arises  betwixt  them  as  he  journeys  upward  from 
the  heavenly  horizon,  they  flood  the  two  Egypts  with  the 
glory  of  their  brightness. 

"  His  Majesty  began  this  work  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  her 
reign,  the  first  day  of  the  month  of  Mechir,  and  finished  it 
on  the  last  day  of  the  month  of  Mesore,  in  her  sixteenth 
year."(7!) 

The  shaft  of  this  obelisk  bears  on  its  western  and  south- 
ern sides  long  dedicatory  inscriptions  in  the  name  of  Hatasu 
only ;  whereas  on  the  eastern  side  we  find,  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  central  column  of  hieroglyphs,  two  outer  columns 
in  which  Hatasu  and  Thothmes  III.  are  represented  togeth- 
er in  adoration  before  various  manifestations  of  Amen-Ea. 
The  fact  that  the  name  of  Thothmes  III.  here  appears  with 
that  of  his  sister  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  her  reign  acquires 
an  especial  interest  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  is  the 
same  date  at  which  we  meet  with  it  on  the  before-mentioned 
tablet  of  Sinai.  It  seems,  therefore,  to  mark  the  precise 
time  at  which  he  was  finally  recognized. 

With  regard  to  the  dates  recorded  in  the  inscription  on 
the  plinth,  they  show  that  these  magnificent  monoliths  were 
extracted  from  the  quarries  of  Syene,  thence  conveyed  to 
Thebes  (a  journey  of  one  hundred  and  thirty -three  miles), 
engraved,  and  placed  in  position  within  the  amazingly  short 
period  of  seven  months — Mechir  being  the  sixth  month  of 
the  Egyptian  year,  and  Mesore  the  twelfth ;  which  is  just  as 
though  we  were  to  say  that  some  great  public  work  was 
begun  on  the  first  of  June,  and  finished  on  the  thirty-first 
of  December.  It  is,  however,  only  when  we  consider  the 
enormous  size  and  weight  of  these  obelisks  that  the  magni- 
tude of  that  task  can  be  fully  appreciated,  each  of  them 


270  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 

measuring  one  hundred  and  nine  feet  in  the  shaft,  without 
counting  the  plinth.  The  one  yet  standing  is,  in  fact,  the 
highest  in  the  world  ;  the  great  obelisk  brought  from  Egypt 
to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  and  now 
standing  in  front  of  the  Church  of  Saint  John  Lateran,  meas- 
uring only  one  hundred  and  six  feet. 

One  startling  peculiarity  in  the  inscriptions  of  Hatasu, 
not  only  upon  her  obelisks  at  Karnak,  but  upon  the  walls 
of  her  temple  at  Dayr-el-Bahari,  consists  in  the  employment 
of  masculine  titles  with  feminine  pronouns.  As  hereditary 
sovereign  of  Egypt,  she  was  Pharaoh  and  King,  head  alike 
of  the  sacerdotal  and  military  castes.  Hence,  in  one  and 
the  same  sentence,  she  appears  as  Hon-f  (His  Majesty), 
while  the  suffixes  used  in  the  grammatical  construction  are 
feminine. 

The  broken  obelisk  differs  from  its  fellow  in  no  longer 
bearing  the  name  of  Hatasu ;  Thothmes  III.  having,  during 
his  own  sole  reign,  erased  her  cartouches  and  substituted 
his  own.  Yet,  despite  his  usurpation,  these  sculptured  frag- 
ments are  still  the  property  of  Hatasu.  In  the  bas-relief 
groups  wherein  she  is  represented  as  performing  acts  of 
worship  before  Amen,  her  spirited  and  characteristic  profile 
is  preserved.  The  name  may  be  the  name  of  Thothmes,  but 
the  face  is  the  face  of  Hatasu.  If  we  turn  back  to  the  full- 
face  portrait  of  this  queen,  given  in  Lecture  IV.,  and  com- 
pare it,  feature  by  feature,  with  this  profile,  their  identity 
is  at  once  recognizable.  Even  the  little  dimple  in  the  chin, 
which  is  so  strongly  marked  in  the  front  face,  is  carefully 
indicated  by  a  depression  in  the  chin  of  the  outline  profile. 

The  most  magnificent  historic  monument  of  the  reign  of 
this  great  queen  was,  however,  the  temple  which  she  con- 
structed on  the  western  bank  of  the  Kile,  nearly  opposite 
the  Great  Temple  of  Karnak.  This  superb  structure  is  archi- 
tecturally unlike  any  other  temple  in  Egypt.  It  stands  at 
the  far  end  of  a  deep  bay,  or  natural  amphitheatre,  formed 
by  the  steep  limestone  cliffs  which  divide  the  Valley  of  the 
Tombs  of  the  Kings  from  the  Valley  of  the  Nile.  Ap- 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


271 


proached  by  a  pair  of  obelisks,  a  pylon  gate-way,  and  a  long 
avenue  of  two  hundred  sphinxes,  the  temple  consisted  of  a 
succession  of  terraces  and  flights  of  steps,  rising  one  above 
the  other,  and  ending  in  a  maze  of  colonnades  and  court- 
yards uplifted  high  against  the 
mountain -side.  The  Sanctu- 
ary, or  Holy  of  Holies,  to  which 
all  the,  rest  was  but  as  an  ave- 
nue, is  excavated  in  the  face 
of  the  cliff,  some  five  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Nile. 
The  novelty  of  the  plan  is  so 
great  that  one  cannot  help 
wondering  whether  it  was  sug- 
gested to  the  architect  by  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  or  wheth- 
er it  was  in  any  degree  a  rem- 
iniscence of  strange  edifices 
seen  in  far  distant  lands.  It 
bears,  at  all  events,  a  certain 
resemblance  to  the  terraced 
temples  of  Chaldasa. 

As  the  statue  of  Bak-en-Khonsu  in  the  Glyptotheca  of 
Munich  preserves  for  us  the  name  of  the  architect  of  the 
Ramesseum,  so  the  obelisks  of  Hatasu  at  Karnak  immortal- 
ize the  name  of  Sen-Maut,  the  architect  of  her  temple  at 
Dayr-el-Bahari.  His  tomb  has  not  been  discovered,  and  his 
personal  history  is  unknown;  but  enough  remains  of  his 
work  in  this  unique  temple  to  show  that  he  was  not  only 
possessed  of  consummate  taste  and  ability,  but  that  he  also 
originated  a  new  departure  in  his  art,  which,  had  it  been 
followed,  might  have  revolutionized  the  architecture  of  an- 
cient Egypt. 

Few  of  the  great  buildings  erected  by  the  Pharaohs  of 
the  later  Theban  line  have  suffered  more  deplorably  at  the 
hand  of  the  destroyer  than  this  temple,  which  is  now  only 
known  by  its  Arabic  name  of  "  Dayr-el-Bahari."  Dayr-el- 


PROFILE  PORTRAIT  AXD  KOYAL  OVALS 
OF  QUKEN  HATASU. 

From  the  pyramidion  of  her  fallen 
obelisk  at  Karnak.  She  wears  the 
Jfepersh,  or  war -helmet  worn  by 
the  Pharaohs  in  battle,  with  the 
golden  "  uraeus,"  or  so-called  "  basi- 
lisk," on  the  brow. 


272 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


Bahari  signifies  the  Convent  of  the  North,  and  the  ruins  of 
the  old  Coptic  monastery  which  give  it  this  name  still  en- 
cumber part  of  the  site.  ( " )  Of  its  two  hundred  sphinxes, 
though  nearly  the  whole  of  them  were  prostrate  on  the 
ground  when  the  French  Commission  visited  Egypt  in  1798, 
not  one  is  now  left.  (")  The  long  and  stately  flights  of 
steps  are  represented  by  a  steep  hill  strewn  with  rubble  and 
fragments  of  limestone.  Of  the  pillared  colonnades,  only  a 
few  columns  are  yet  standing  in  the  shelter  of  the  cliff-side ; 
and  the  ruin  of  the  whole'  is  so  complete  that  the  casual 
visitor  can  with  difficulty  recognize  the  plan  on  which  it 
was  built.  By  means,  however,  of  close  and  patient  study 
on  the  spot,  M.  Brune,  a  distinguished  French  architect,  has 


TEMPLE    OF    HATASU    AT    DAYR-EL-BAHAUI. 

(Restoration  from  a  design  by  M.  Brune.) 


succeeded  in  making  a  restored  elevation  of  this  beautiful 
temple,  as  it  appeared  in  the  days  of  its  splendor.  (74) 

The  dromos  of  approach,  the  long  avenue  of  sphinxes,  the 
obelisks,  and  the  pylons,  are  necessarily  omitted  from  M. 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


273 


Brune's  design.  But  we  here  see  two  great  flights  of  steps 
leading  from  terrace  to  terrace,  each  step  guarded  by  two 
couchant  sphinxes ;  the  two  colossal  statues  of  Hatasu  seat- 
ed on  either  side  of  the  steps  which  rise  from  the  second 


HATHOR-HEAD    CAPITAL. 


From  one  of  the  fallen  columns  at  Dayr-el-Babari.     (From  a  photograph  by  Mr. 
W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie.) 


terrace ;  and  the  pillared  portico  in  the  centre  of  the  third 
terrace,  marking  the  entrance  to  the  rock-cut  sanctuary  be- 
yond. The  columns  which  supported  that  third  terrace  were 
surmounted  by  Hathor-headed  capitals,  and  of  these  columns 
only  a  few  shattered  shafts  and  two  or  three  fallen  capitals 
now  strew  the  ground.  The  color  on  those  capitals  is  still 
brilliant.  (75)  The  long  wall  facing  the  spectator  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  temple  where  it  adjoins  the  mountain-side,  and 
another  wall  bounding  the  second  terrace  on  the  left  of  the 
picture,  are  covered  with  bas-relief  sculptures,  whicli  in  the 
18 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

illustration  are  of  necessity  but  slightly  indicated.  These 
bas-relief  tableaux,  or  rather  what  remains  of  them,  are  most 
delicately  sculptured  and  vividly  colored ;  but  full  two-thirds 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  are  gone. 

The  traveller  who  now  visits  the  wreck  of  this  temple  can 
with  difficulty  identify  its  wide-spread  ruins  with  M.  Brune's 
elegant  restoration.  That  part,  however,  which  is  best  pre- 
served does  not  appear  at  all  in  our  illustration — namely, 
the  rock-cut  chamber,  commonly  called  "  The  Chamber  of  the 
Cow,"  which  is  entered  from  the  third  terrace.  Hewn  out 
of  the  solid  cliff-side  and  lined  with  blocks  of  the  finest  lime- 
stone, this  little  specs  contains  two  bas-relief  subjects  repre- 
senting Queen  Hatasu,  in  the  costume  of  a  royal  prince, 
kneeling  beside  the  Goddess  Hathor,  who  is  represented  as 
a  large  red  cow.  The  Queen,  with  a  naivete  peculiar  to 
Egyptian  art,  is  shown  as  in  the  act  of  sucking  the  milk  of 
the  Divine  Cow,  thus  signif}nng  that  she  was  the  very  foster- 
child  of  the  goddess.  One  leg  and  hoof  and  part  of  the 
body  of  the  cow  are  seen  in  our  next  illustration.  The 
figure  of  the  Queen  is  excellently  proportioned,  and  her  face, 
although  it  differs  from  her  other  portraits  in  being  more 
conventionally  rendered,  is  historically  valuable.  On  her 
brow  she  wears  the  Uraeus  of  royalty,  and  on  her  head  the 
wig  of  close -laid  rows  of  curls  usually  worn  by  youthful 
princes.  Her  cartouche  is  sculptured  in  the  space  between 
her  right  arm  and  left  knee,  but  the  hieroglyphic  characters 
have  been  erased,  and  it  is  no  longer  legible. 

By  some  authorities,  the  Temple  of  Dayr-el-Bahari  is 
supposed  to  have  been  begun  during  the  lifetime  of  Thoth- 
mes  II.,  and  by  others  it  is  believed  to  be  the  work  of 
Ilatasu,  during  her  sole  reign.  The  cartouches  of  Thothmes 
II.  appear,  it  is  true,  in  some  of  the  inscriptions.  Whether 
Thothmes  II.  had,  or  had  not,  any  share  in  the  founding  of 
the  temple,  it  is  at  all  events  certain  that  the  bulk  of  the 
building,  and  its  decoration,  was  due  to  Hatasu.  The  car- 
touches of  Thothmes  III.  also  appear  in  many  of  the  in- 
scriptions, and  notably  on  that  of  the  red  granite  gate-way 


QUEEN  HATASU.  275 

leading  to  the  rock-cut  chambers  on  the  uppermost  terrace. 
But  these  are  usurpations,  and  date  from  some  period  subse- 
quent to  the  reign  of  Hatasu ;  her  successor,  Thothmes  III., 
having  caused  the  names  of  his  sister  to  be  obliterated  and 
his  own  to  be  engraved  in  their  place.  The  building  is  dedi- 
cated in  part  to  Amen,  the  Great  God  of  Thebes,  and  in  part 


HATASU    AND    THE    DITISE    COW. 


Bas-relief  sculpture  representing  Hatasu  in  the  costume  of  a  youthful  Prince,  suck- 
ing milk  from  the  Divine  Cow  (emblematic  of  Hathor),  from  the  south  wall  of 
the  rock-cut  sanctuary  of  her  temple  at  Dayr-el-Baliari.  (From  a  photograph  by 
Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie.) 


to  Hathor,  the  Lady  of  the  West,  the  nurse  of  Horus,  and 
the  presiding  deity  of  the  far-distant  Land  of  Punt.  It  was 
under  this  last  aspect  that  Hathor  was  especially  reverenced 
in  the  Temple  of  Dayr-el-Bahari. 

It  is  in  the  sculptured  and  painted  tableaux  upon  the  walls 
of  the  two  uppermost  terraces  of  Hatasu's  temple  that  we 
find  depicted  every  incident  of  the  most  remarkable  event 


276  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

of  her  reign.  That  event  was  the  building  of  a  fleet  of  sea- 
going ships,  and  the  despatch  of  an  exploring  squadron  to 
the  Land  of  Punt;  a  region  identified  by  Maspero  and 
Mariette  with  that  part  of  the  Somali  country  which  is  sit- 
uate on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  bordering  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  This  region,  rich  in  incense  -  bearing  trees,  in  costly 
gums  and  resins,  in  myrrh  and  amber,  gold,  lapis-lazuli,  ivory, 
and  precious  woods,  is  the  Cinnamomifera  regio,  sometimes 
called  the  aromatifera  regio  of  the  ancients.  (76) 

At  this  time,  the  province  of  Yemen,  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  Arabia,  was  the  great  general  meeting-place  of  Ind- 
ian and  Asiatic  commerce.  Thence  the  Phoenicians,  the 
Arabs,  and  the  Arameans  carried  the  merchandise  of  the 
great  trading  nations  of  the  East  by  sea  and  land  to  Meso- 
potamia, to  Syria,  to  Egypt,  and  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Here,  too,  the  mysterious  products  of  the  Land  of  Punt  found 
their  market ;  and,  being  transported  from  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  to  the  west  coast  of  Arabia,  were  brought  back  to 
Africa  by  a  circuitous  route  to  the  great  Egyptian  port  of 
Touaou  (the  modern  Kosseir),  whence  the  merchants  of  Cop- 
tos  conveyed  them  to  Thebes. 

Inspired,  as  one  of  the  temple  inscriptions  states,  by  the 
direct  command  of  Amen  himself,  Hatasu  resolved  no  longer 
to  be  dependent  upon  the  uncertain  trade  of  Arabia  for  the 
valuable  products  from  which  the  incense  used  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  temples  was  made.  She  therefore  resolved  her- 
self to  despatch  an  expedition  to  the  Somali  coast ;  and  for 
this  purpose  she  built  and  fitted  out  five  ships,  the  largest 
and  the  best  equipped  yet  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

These  ships  were  built  with  a  narrow  keel,  the  stern  and 
prow  rising  high  above  the  water.  Their  length  was  about 
seventy  feet,  and  they  were  evidently  without  any  sort  of 
cabin  accommodation.  A  raised  platform  with  a  balustrade, 
erected  at  both  prow  and  poop,  served  for  a  lookout  fore  and 
aft;  and  under  these  platforms  there  was  probably  some  kind 
of  shelter  for  the  officers.  These  vessels  had  no  decks,  the 
hull  being  fitted  up  with  seats  for  the  rowers.  The  ends  of 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


277 


the  planks  which  formed  the  seats  were  fixed  through  the 
ribs  of  the  ship,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  illustration.  There 
was  probably  some  kind  of  hold  for  the  storage  of  provisions, 
ballast,  etc.,  under  the  feet  of  the  rowers ;  but  this,  of  course 
would  be  below  the  water-line.  There  is  but  one  mast,  hewn 
from  a  massive  palm -trunk,  and  measuring  about  twenty- 
seven  feet  in  height.  This  is  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  ship, 
and  lashed  strongly  to  the  deck.  Each  vessel  mounts  but  a 
single  sail,  and  has  two  spars,  the  top  one  straight  and  the 


FIRST    SHIP    OF    OUTGOING    SQUADRON    BOUND    FOR    PUNT. 

(From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari,  plate  12.) 


lower  one  curved.  The  helm  is  made  of  two  very  large  oars, 
firmly  bound  to  a  kind  of  bracket  in  front  of  the  rear  plat- 
form, and  worked  by  a  long  curved  stick.  The  crew  con- 
sists of  thirty  rowers,  fifteen  on  each  side,  four  reefers,  two 
steersmen,  a  pilot,  an  overseer  of  the  rowers,  and  a  captain. 
A  small  detachment  of  military,  numbering  about  eight  or 
ten  soldiers  and  an  officer,  accompanied  the  expedition. 
These  served  as  a  guard  of  honor  to  the  envoy  sent  by 
Queen  Hatasu  to  the  Prince  of  Punt.  Soldiers  and  sailors 
all  counted,  the  expedition  consisted  of  about  two  hundred 
and  ten  men  to  the  five  ships. 

Our  illustration  shows  the  departure  of  the  leader  of  the 


278  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

squadron.  Each  rower  is  in  his  place.  Their  overseer,  stand- 
ing with  his  back  to  the  platform  at  the  prow,  directs  the 
rise  and  fall  of  their  oars,  probably,  as  at  the  present  day, 
by  leading  a  chant  in  which  all  join.  The  steersman  is  sta- 
tioned at  the  stern,  and  holds  in  his  hand  the  long  curved 
handle  by  which  the  helm  is  worked.  The  captain,  baton  in 
hand,  stands  on  the  platform  at  the  prow,  looking  forward 
in  the  direction  that  the  ship  is  going.  A  brief  hieroglyphic 
inscription  above  the  carved  lotus  which  decorates  the  stern 
states  that  they  "  make  head  for  the  large  " — in  other  words, 
for  the  "  open."  The  great  sail  is  spread,  and  is  evidently 
filled  by  a  favorable  wind,  and  all  promises  well  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  voyage. 

Every  part  of  the  vessel  shown  in  our  illustration  is  elabo- 
rately rendered,  down  to  the  minutest  detail.  We  see  how 
the  spars  are  spliced,  and  where  the  reef -bands  are  tied;  and 
we  also  see  the  great  cable  passing  over  the  heads  of  the 
rowers,  to  which,  doubtless,  the  anchor  was  attached.  Some 
allowance  must,  perforce,  be  made  for  the  conventionalities 
of  Egyptian  art.  The  sail,  which  here  appears  as  though 
parallel  with  the  length  of  the  vessel,  should,  of  course,  be 
set  at  an  angle  to  it ;  but  the  naval  draughtsman  of  Hatasu's 
time  was  as  anxious  to  display  every  part  of  his  subject  as 
was  his  compatriot  the  figure -painter,  who  represented  a 
front -wise  body  in  conjunction  with  profile  legs  and  head. 
The  water  through  which  our  gallant  vessel  is  ploughing  its 
way  is,  as  usual,  represented  by  zigzag  lines.  Those  in  the 
original  are  painted  of  a  light  blue,  and  represent  the  Nile; 
blue  being  the  color  symbolical  of  fresh -water.  The  fishes, 
too,  are  the  fishes  of  the  Nile.  The  admirable  accuracy 
with  which  these  fish  are  drawn  compensates  for  the  incon- 
gruity of  their  proportions  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
crew  of  the  vessel.  There  is  not  one  of  them  who  could 
not  swallow  a  couple  of  sailors  whole  without  the  smallest 
inconvenience. 

The  original  wall  -  sculpture  from  which  our  illustration  is 
taken  shows  the  whole  squadron  in  full  sail,  and  is  accom- 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


279 


panied  by  a  few  columns  of  explanatory  text,  which  read  as 
follows : 

"Departure  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Lord  of  the  Two 
Worlds  traversing  the  Great  Sea  on  the  Good  Way  to  the 
Land  of  the  Gods,  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  the  King  of 
the  Gods,  Amen  of  Thebes.  He  commanded  that  there 
should  be  brought  to  him  the  marvellous  products  of  the 
Land  of  Punt,  for  that  he  loves  the  Queen  Hatasu  above  all 
other  kings  that  have  ruled  this  land." 

Before  we  go  farther  on  our  way  towards  the  Land  of 
Punt,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  by  what  route  the  squadron 
reached  its  destination.  This  is  a  very  interesting  question. 
Many  of  the  upper  courses  of  these  sculptured  and  painted 
walls  are  so  hopelessly  mutilated  as  to  break  the  continuity 
of  the  narrative.  Thus,  although  it  is  distinctly  stated  that 
the  ships  returned  to  Thebes  and  there  disembarked  their 
cargo  at  the  close  of  the  expedition,  the  inscription  which 
should  inform  us  as  to  the  point  of  their  departure  is  lost. 
Seeing,  however,  that  they  returned  to  Thebes,  it  may  be 
taken  for  granted  that  they  sailed  from  the  same  port,  and 
this  supposition  is  confirmed  by  the  blue  color  of  the  water 
and  the  presence  therein  of  the  fishes  of  the  Nile.  But  what 
course  did  they  take  when  they  had  turned  their  backs  upon 
"  hundred-gated  Thebes  ?" 

That  the  squadron  should 
have  descended  the  Nile, 
sailed  westward  through  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  skirted 
the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
doubled  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  reached  the  So- 
mali shores  by  way  of  the 
Mozambique  Channel  and 
the  coast  of  Zanzibar  is  ab- 
solutely incredible. 

Such  an  achievement  at  so 
early  a  stage  of  naval  history, 


280  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

would  be  far  more  wonderful  than  the  building  of  all  the 
pyramids  or  temples  of  Egypt.  It  would,  in  fact,  imply  that 
Queen  Hatasu's  squadron  twice  made  the  almost  complete 
circuit  of  the  African  continent.  We  are  compelled  to  reject 
this  hypothesis.  Rejecting  it,  we  must  fall  back  upon  the 
only  alternative  possibility,  which  is  that  they  went  out  by 
some  ancient  water-way  connecting  the  Nile  with  the  Red  Sea. 

Now,  the  surveys  recently  made  by  Lieutenant  -  colonel 
Ardagh,  Major  Spaight,  and  Lieutenant  Burton,  of  the 
Royal  Engineers,  have  rendered  it  certain  that  the  Wady 
Tumilat  was  at  some  very  distant  time  traversed  by  a 
branch  of  the  Nile  which  discharged  its  waters  into  the  Red 
Sea — the  majority  of  geographers  being  now  of  opinion  that 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  formerly  extended  as  far 
northward  as  the  modern  town  of  Ismailia.  Whether  that 
branch  of  the  Nile  was  ever  navigable,  we  know  not ;  but 
we  do  know  that  it  was  already  canalized  in  the  reign  of 
Seti  I.,  second  Pharaoh  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  and 
father  of  Rameses  II. 

This  ancient  canal  started,  like  the  present  Sweet  water 
Canal,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Bubastis,  the  modern  Zaga- 
zig ;  threaded  the  Wady  Tumilat ;  and  emptied  itself  into 
that  basin  which  is  now  known  as  Lake  Timsah.  When  M. 
de  Lesseps  laid  down  the  line  of  the  Sweetwater  Canal,  he, 
in  fact,  followed  the  course  of  the  old  canal  of  the  Pharaohs, 
the  bed  of  which  is  yet  traceable.  When  I  last  saw  it,  sev- 
eral blocks  of  the  masonry  of  the  old  embankment  were  yet 
in  situ,  among  the  reeds  and  weeds  by  which  that  ancient 
water-way  is  now  choked. 

This  canal  is  represented  in  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
wall-sculptures  of  the  Great  Temple  of  Karnak,  (")  and  it  is 
there  called  Ta-Tena,  or  "  the  cutting ;"  and  because  King 
Seti  is  shown  to  be  returning  to  Eg}^pt  from  one  of  his  Syrian 
campaigns  by  way  of  a  bridge  over  this  same  canal,  it  has 
been  universally  taken  for  granted  that  he  was  the  author  of 
that  important  engineering  work.  There  is,  however,  no 
kind  of  evidence  to  justify  the  assumption.  As  reasonably 


QUEEN   HATASU.  281 

might  it  be  supposed  that  Napoleon  the  First  was  the  build- 
er of  the  Pyramids,  because  in  Gerome's  great  picture  he  is 
represented  as  seated  on  horseback,  and  contemplating  them 
from  a  distance.  The  canal  may  have  existed,  arid  in  all 
probability  did  exist,  long  before  the  time  of  Seti  I.  It  would 
seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  great  woman-Pharaoh  who  first  con- 
ceived the  daring  project  of  launching  her  ships  upon  an  un- 
known sea,  was  by  far  the  most  likely  person  to  canalize  that 
channel  by  which  alone,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  it  would  have 
been  possible  for  them  to  go  forth.  For  my  own  part,  I  have 
not  the  slightest  doubt  that  Queen  Hatasu  was  the  scientific 
ancestress  of  M.  de  Lesseps ;  and  that  it  was  to  the  genius 
and  energy  of  this  extraordinary  woman  that  Egypt  owed 
that  great  work  of  canalization  which  first  united  the  Nile 
with  the  Red  Sea. 

Tn  the  sculptured  tableau  from  which  our  illustration  of 
the  ship  is  taken,  four  other  vessels  are  shown :  the  first,  as 
we  have  seen,  leads  the  way  with  a  swelling  sail ;  the  last 
is  not  yet  fully  laden,  but  lies  at  anchor,  waiting  for  a  small 
boat  into  which  some  sailors  are  conveying  large  jars. 

In  the  next  tableau,  the  expedition  has  reached  its  des- 
tination. The  voyage  being  omitted,  the  ships  are  once 
more  seen  at  anchor,  and  the  ancient  draughtsman,  in  one 
of  the  very  few  known  examples  of  Egyptian  landscape 
art,  has  carefully  depicted  for  us  the  characteristic  scenery 
of  the  unknown  country  to  which  the  squadron  has  made  its 
way.  The  ground  is  flat  and  thickly  wooded,  the  conical 
huts  of  the  inhabitants  being  built  on  piles  and  approached 
by  ladders.  A  cow  reposes  peacefully  in  the  shade  of  a  tree 
to  the  right,  and  a  bird,  known  by  its  characteristic  tail-feath- 
ers as  the  Cinnyris  metallica,  wings  its  flight  towards  the 
left.  Of  the  five  trees  here  represented,  two  are  conventional 
renderings  of  the  date  -  palm.  The  trunks  and  branches  of 
the  other  three  are  most  carefully  drawn.  An  enclosing  line 
carried  round  each  indicates  the  outline  of  the  foliage,  the 
details  of  which  are  left  to  the  imagination.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  this  landscape  represented  some  spot  on  the 


282 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND   EXPLORERS. 


shores  of  the  Red  Sea ;  but  M.  Maspero  has  pointed  out  vari- 
ous reasons  to  show  that  we  are  here  on  the  banks  of  a  riv- 
The  three  last-named  trees,  for  instance,  precisely  re- 


er. 


produce  the  structure  of  the  odoriferous  sycamore,  which 


V1EXV    OF   A    TILLAGE    IN    PUNT. 

(From  Marietta's  Dei.r-el-£ahari,  plate  5.)  The  huts  of  the  natives  are  built  on  piles 
and  approached  by  ladders,  and,  according  to  Diimichen,  closely  resemble  the 
Toquls  of  the  modern  Soudanese.  The  trees  are  two  date-palms  in  fruit,  and 
three  myrrh-trees  (odoriferous  sycamore),  the  foliage  of  the  latter  being  indicated 
by  a  line  bounding  the  tops  of  the  branches.  The  bird  flying  to  left  is  identified 
with  the  Ginnyris  metallica,  a  native  of  the  Somali  country,  having  two  long  tail- 
feathers,  of  which  only  one  has  been  given  by  the  ancient  Egyptian  artist. 


does  not  grow  by  the  sea-side,  but  on  the  borders  of  rivers ; 
and  he  concludes  that  the  Egyptian  squadron,  after  sailing 
down  the  Red  Sea  and  rounding  the  headland  called  Ras-el- 
Fil,  had  made  its  way  up  the  mouth  of  the  Elephant  Riv- 
er. The  water  in  the  original  is  painted  green,  which  may 
be  taken  to  indicate  a  tidal  river;  green  being  the  Egyptian 
color  for  sea-water,  and  blue  for  fresh-water.  The  fishes,  it 
is  to  be  observed,  are  not  the  fishes  of  Egypt,  while  among 
them  is  seen  a  fine  turtle,  a  cetacean  unknown  to  the  waters 
of  the  Nile.  O 

The  royal  envoy  having  landed,  accompanied  by  his  milita- 
ry escort,  arranges  on  a  table,  or  stand,  the  gifts  which  he  has 
brought  for  presentation  to  the  Prince  of  Punt.  These  gifts 
consist  of  bead  necklaces,  bracelets,  collars,  a  hatchet,  and  a 
dagger  of  state.  "We  may  suppose  the  beads  to  be  of  that 
beautiful  variegated  glass,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  the 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


283 


Egyptians  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Dynasties  par- 
ticularly excelled.  The  collars  and  bracelets  are  painted  yel- 
low, to  represent  gold,  the  former  being  torque-shaped  and 
closely  resembling  the  "toqs"  worn  by  the  Egyptian  women 
of  the  present  day.  The  envoy  is  in  civil  dress,  and  leans 
upon  his  staff  of  command.  The  soldiers  are  armed  with 
spear  and  hatchet, 
and  carry  a  large 
shield  rounded  at  the 
top  —  the  ordinary 
equipment  of  infan- 
try of  the  line.  Their 
captain  carries  no 
shield,  but  is  armed 
with  a  bow,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  spear  and 
hatchet  of  his  fol- 
lowers. The  inscrip- 
tion states  that  these 
are  "all  the  good 
things  of  His  Maj- 
esty, to  whom  be 
Life,  Health,  and 

Strength,  destined  for  Hathor,  Lady  of  Punt."  This  is  a 
circuitous  manner  of  stating  that  the  said  good  things  are 
intended,  not  for  the  goddess,  but  as  a  means  of  exchange 
for  the  coveted  products  of  Punt. 

"We  next  see  the  approach  of  the  native  chief,  accompanied 
by  his  family  and  followers.  They  advance  with  uplifted 
hands,  this  being  the  accepted  attitude  of  deprecation  and 
homage.  The  chief  wears  a  collar  of  large  beads,  a  small 
dagger  in  his  belt,  and  a  shenti,  or  loin-cloth,  of  the  same  fash- 
ion as  that  worn  by  the  Egyptians.  Unlike  them,  however, 
he  wears  a  beard ;  and  this  beard  is  curved  slightly  upward, 
like  those  with  which  the  Egyptians  represented  their  gods 
and  deceased  Pharaohs.  The  inscription  engraved  in  front 
of  his  body  states  that  he  is  "  The  Great  of  Punt,  Parihu;"  a 


THE  ROYAL  ENVOY,  ATTKXnKJ)  BY  HIS  BODY  -  GUARD, 
DISPLAYS  THE  GIFTS  SKNT  BY  HATASU  TO  THE  PRINCE 
OF  PUNT. 

(From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahan,  plate  5.) 


284: 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


name  apparently  derived  from  an  Arabic  root.  He  is  fol- 
lowed by  his  wife,  his  two  sons,  and  his  daughter,  to  each  of 
whom  is  attached  a  short  inscription.  The  two  youths  are 
simply  described  as  "  his  sons,"  and  the  young  girl  as  "  his 
daughter."  His  spouse,  a  very  singular  and  unbeautif  ul  per- 
son, is  described  as  "  his  wife,  Ati."  She  wears  a  yellow 


PROCESSION    OF   THE   PRINCE   OP   PUNT, 

accompanied  by  his  wife,  family,  and  followers.    (From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari, 

plate  5.) 


dress,  bracelets  on  her  wrists,  anklets  on  her  ankles,  and  a 
necklace  of  alternate  bead  and  chain  work  round  her  throat. 
Her  hair,  like  that  of  her  daughter,  is  bound  with  a  fillet  on 
the  brow.  Her  features  are  repulsive,  and  her  cheek  is  dis- 
figured by  two  lines  of  tattooing  on  either  side  of  the  mouth. 
She  is  hideously  obese,  her  limbs  and  body  being  weighed 
down  by  rolls  of  fat.  Her  daughter,  though  evidently  quite 
young,  already  shows  a  tendency  towards  the  same  kind  of 
.  deformity. 

This  strange  portrait  of  the  Princess  Ati  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion,  it  being  a  doubtful  point  whether 


QUEEN  HATASU.  285 

she  is  to  be  considered  as  a  diseased  monstrosity,  or  as  a  par- 
agon of  beauty.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  authorities  that 
she  must  have  been  the  living  realization  of  the  highest  type 
of  female  loveliness,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  natives  of 
certain  parts  of  Central  Africa.  Chabas  compares  her  with 
Speke's  description  of  the  favorite  wife  of  the  brother  of  the 
King  of  Karagoue,  whose  fat  hung  in  large  puddings  about 
her  arms,  and  whose  weight  was  too  great  to  allow  of  her 
standing  upright.  Beauty  of  this  class  was  formerly  sup- 
posed to  belong  exclusively  to  the  fair  ladies  of  the  Hottentot 
race ;  but  Schweinfurth,  in  his  "  Heart  of  Africa,"  describes 
the  Bongo  women  in  words  that  would  almost  seem  to  have 
been  suggested  by  the  subject  of  our  illustration.  Maspero 
suggests  that  the  Princess  Ati  may  be  suffering  from  ele- 
phantiasis j  but  Mariette  is  of  opinion  that  the  Egyptian 
artist  has  here  represented  not  merely  the  wife  of  the  chief, 
but  the  most  admired  type  of  the  women  of  the  Somali 
race.  The  complexions  of  the  whole  family  are  painted 
of  a  brick  red,  and  their  hair  black,  thus  showing  that  they 
are  not  of  negro  race.  The  superimposed  hieroglyphic  in- 
scription, which  extends  to  some  length  beyond  that  of  our 
illustration,  states  that  "Hither  come  the  Great  [ones]  of 
Punt,  their  backs  bent,  their  heads  bowed,  to  receive  the  sol- 
diers of  His  Majesty."  Then  follow  the  words  which  are  sup- 
posed to  come  out  of  their  mouths:  "How  have  you  ar- 
rived at  this  land  unknown  to  the  men  of  Egypt  ?(79)  Have 
you  come  down  from  the  roads  of  the  Heavens?  Or  have 
you  navigated  the  sea  of  Ta-nuter  \  *  You  must  have  fol- 
lowed the  path  of  the  sun.  As  for  the  King  of  Egypt, 
there  is  no  road  which  is  inaccessible  to  His  Majesty ;  we  live 
by  the  breath  he  grants  to  us." 

An  ass,  saddled  with  a  thick  cushion,  and  three  attendants 
carrying  short  staves,  bring  up  the  rear  of  the  procession. 
Over  the  ears  of  this  beast  of  heavy  burden  is  engraved  in 
hieroglyphic  characters,  "  The  great  ass  that  carries  his  wife;" 

*  The  Land  of  the  Gods. 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


the  great  ass,  if  the  ancient  artist  is  to  be  relied  upon  in  his 
scale  of  proportion,  bearing  about  the  same  relation  to 
Princess  Ati  as  FalstafFs  half-pennyworth  of  bread  to  his 
"  intolerable  deal  of  sack."  The  men  who  guide  and  follow 
the  ass  wear  the  upcurved  beard  everywhere  characteristic 
of  the  natives  of  Punt  in  Egyptian  art.  On  the  sculptured 
pylon  of  Horemheb,  at  Karnak,  we  find  a  Prince  of  Punt  of 

one  hundred  and  six- 
ty years  later,  with 
features  closely  re- 
sembling those  of 
Parihu.  He  wears 
the  same  curved 
beard,  and  even  the 
close-fitting  cap, 
which  was  apparent- 
ly the  distinguishing 
badge  of  the  chief- 
dom.(80) 

The  gifts  sent  by 
Hatasu  having  been 
presented  by  the  en- 
voy and  accepted  by 
the  Prince  of  Punt, 
the  latter  proceeds  to 

offer  in  return  five  ship-loads  of  the  special  products  of  his 
country.  The  inscription  states  that  the  Chief  of  Punt  piles 
his  tribute  by  the  water-side. 

From  this  point,  the  sculptured  tableaux  form  a  continu- 
ous scene,  those  in  the  lower  register  being  almost  perfect, 
whereas  those  in  the  upper  register  are  unfortunately  so 
much  broken  away  that  in  many  places  there  remain  only 
the  feet  of  the  figures  and  the  water  lines  of  the  river.  In 
several  of  the  best  preserved,  we  see  the  Egyptian  sailors 
carrying  half -grown  saplings  which  have  been  taken  up 
with  a  ball  of  earth  about  the  roots,  and  are  being  trans- 
ported in  baskets  slung  upon  poles,  each  pole  carried  by 


CHIEF    OF    PUNT. 


From  the  Pylon  of  Horeraheb,  at  Karnak.  This  fine 
head  of  a  chief  of  Punt  is  photographed  from  a 
cast  taken  by  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie  from  the  group 
of  foreign  tributaries  sculptured  on  the  Pylon  of 
Horemheb,  at  Karnak. 


QUEEN  HATASU.  287 

four  men.  These,  as  they  wend  their  way  towards  the  ships, 
are  accompanied  by  natives  of  Punt,  some  carrying  large  lo«-s 
of  ebony,  others  leading  apes,  and  one  a  giraffe.  In  one  place 
where  there  is  a  great  gap  in  the  wall,  the  remains  of  the  in- 
scription show  that  an  elephant  and  a  horse  were  among  the 
animals  embarked  from  Punt  for  the  gratification  of  Ilatasu. 
This  Queen  doubtless  shared  in  that  lively  interest  which,  as 


11KN    CARRYING    SAPLINGS    OF   THE  "ANA  -  SYCAMORE "   IN    BASKETS,  FROM    THE    SHORE   TO 

THE    SHIPS. 

(From  Marietta's  Deir-el-Bakari,  plate  5.) 


it  is  well  known,  her  brother  Thothmes  III.  entertained  for 
all  kinds  of  foreign  birds,  beasts,  and  plants.( "' )  A  running 
commentary  o£  short  inscriptions  is  interspersed  here  and 
there  between  the  figures,  "  Stand  steady  on  your  legs, 
Bohu !"  says  one  of  the  bearers.  "  You  throw  too  much 
weight  upon  my  shoulders,"  retorts  Bohu. 

Over  the  saplings  which  are  being  carried  in  baskets,  is 
inscribed  Neliet  Ana;  that  is  to  say,  the  Sycamore  of  Ana. 
Elsewhere  we  see  the  full-grown  trees.  The  trunk  is  mas- 
sive ;  the  leaf  is  a  sharp-pointed  oval ;  and  at  the  junction 
of  the  trunk  and  the  larger  branches  are  seen  little  copper- 
colored  lumps  of  irregular  form,  representing  the  resinous 
gum  which  has  exuded  through  the  bark.  A  passage  in 
Pliny,  to  which  Mariette  especially  refers  in  his  memoir  on 
Deir-el-Bahari,  shows  that  this  tree,  the  odoriferous  syca- 
more, can  be  none  other  than  the  myrrh-tree,  whose  gum 


288  PHARAOHS,   FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

was  brought  by  the  ancients  from  the  so-called  "  land  of  the 
Troglodytes."  According  to  the  old  naturalist,  the  myrrh- 
tree  is  found 

"...  in  many  quarters  of  Arabia ;  also  there  is  very  good 
myrrhe  brought  out  of  the  Islands ;  and  the  Sabeans  passe 
the  seas  and  travell  as  far  as  to  the  Troglodites  countrey  for 
it.  ...  The  plant  groweth  ordinarily  five  cubits  high,  but 
not  all  that  length  is  it  smooth  and  without  prickes :  the 
bodie  and  trunke  is  hard  and  wry  then ;  it  is  greatest  toward 
the  root,  and  so  ariseth  smaller  and  smaller,  taper -wise. 
Some  say  that  the  barke  is  smooth  and  even,  like  unto  that 
of  the  Arbute  Tree :  others  againe  affirme  that  it  is  prickly, 
and  full  of  thornes.  It  hath  a  leafe  like  to  the  Olive,  but 
more  crisped  and  curled,  and  withall  it  is  in  the  end  sharpe- 
pointed  like  a  needle.  .  .  .  The  myrrhe  trees  are  twice  cut 
and  launced  in  one  year;  the  slit  reacheth  from  the  very 
root  up  to  the  boughes,  if  they  may  beare  and  abide  it." 

Further  on,  he  says  that,  of  all  the  wild  kinds  of  myrrh- 
trees,  "  the  first  is  that  which  groweth  in  the  Troglodites 
countrey  ;"  and  this,  "  the  Trogloditike  myrrhe,  they  chuse 
by  the  fattinesse  thereof,  and  for  that  it  seemeth  to  the  eie 
greener.  .  .  .  The  best  myrrhe  is  known  by  little  peeces 
which  are  not  round ;  and  when  they  grow  together,  they 
yeeld  a  certain  whitish  liquour  which  issueth  and  resolveth 
from  them,  and  if  a  man  breake  them  into  morsels,  it  hath 
white  veines  resembling  men's  nails,  and  in  tast  is  somewhat 
bitter."  (8'J) 

That  the  Ana  was  undoubtedly  the  resinous  gum  of  the 
myrrh-tree  is  still  further  confirmed  by  the  above  passage 
from  Pliny,  which  describes  it  as  of  a  green  color ;  the 
"green  Ana"  being  constantly  named  in  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions as  the  most  precious  and  desirable  kind. 

One  very  interesting  tableau,  which  is  yet  happily  in  good 
preservation,  represents  a  group  of  three  large  trees  of  this 
species,  i.  e.,  the  Nehet  Ana,  or  odoriferous  sycamore.  On 
the  ground,  in  the  shade  of  their  boughs,  are  piles  of  pan- 
ther-skins and  elephant-tusks,  logs  of  ebony  in  stacks,  and 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


289 


rings  and  ingots  of  precious  metal.  Above  the  tops  of  the 
trees  is  shown  a  row  of  sycamore  saplings  in  tubs,  with  an 
inscription  stating  that  "thirty  and  one  growing  trees  of 
the  Ana  were  taken  as  marvels  of  Punt  to  the  holiness  of 
this  God  [Amen].  Never  was  there  seen  the  like  since  the 
world  began." 

And  now,  while  the  Egyptian  sailors,  assisted  by  the  na- 
tives of  Punt,  are  busily  engaged  in  loading  the  ships,  Hata- 
su's  envoy  offers  an  official  reception  to  Prince  Parihu,  his 
wife  and  family.  This  parting  interview  is  conducted  with 
great  ceremony  on  both  sides.  A  huge  heap  of  myrrh,  two 
trays  of  massive  gold  rings,  and  a  pile  of  elephant-tusks  are 
brought  by  Parihu,  probably  as  a  farewell  bakhshish  to  the 
envoy  himself.  The  Lady  Ati  is  apparelled  as  before,  but 
the  right  leg  of  Parihu  is  covered  from  the  ankle  to  above 
the  knee  with  a  close  succession  of  metal  rings  resembling 


GIFTS    PRESENTED    TO    THK    ROYAL    ENVOY    BY    THE    PRINCE    OF    PUXT. 

(From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari,  plate  5.) 


the  dangdbor  of  the  Bongo  people,  as  shown  in  an  illustra- 
tion to  Schweinfurth's  Heart  of  Africa.  ( 63 )  The  sons  of 
Parihu,  one  of  them  carrying  a  bowl  of  gold-dust ;  an  attend- 
ant bearing  a  large  jar  on  his  shoulder ;  and  the  ass,  which 
has  again  enjoyed  the  unenviable  privilege  of  carrying  the 
Lady  Ati,  bring  up  the  rear.  The  pile  of  Ana  is  here  repre- 
sented in  a  very  summary  fashion  by  a  mere  outline,  but 
in  some  of  the  other  subjects  the  little  irregularly  shaped 
lumps  of  the  precious  gum  are  all  elaborately  defined.  The 
envoy  stands  in  front  of  his  pavilion— omitted  in  our  illus- 
19 


290 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


tration — and  is  apparently  in  the  act  of  inviting  his  guests 
to  partake  of  the  banquet  which,  by  order  of  Hatasu,  he  has 
prepared  for  them.  This  consisted,  according  to  the  accom- 
panying inscription,  of  "  bread,  beer,  wines,  meat,  vegetables, 
and  all,  good  things  of  Egypt,  by  command  of  His  Majesty, 
to  whom  be  Life,  Health,  Strength." 

In  the  very  interesting  subject  now  before  us,  we  see  the 
Egyptian  sailors,  some  carrying  the  saplings  in  baskets  slung 


SHIPS    OF    THE    EGYPTIAN    SQUADRON    BEING    LADEN    WITH    THE    PRODUCTS    OF   PUNT. 

(From  Marietta's  Deir-el-Bahari,  plate  6.) 

from  poles,  as  before ;  others  laden  with  big  jars ;  and  all  hur- 
rying on  board  along  inclined  planks  reaching  presumably 
from  the  shore,  which,  however,  is  not  shown  in  the  picture. 
The  decks  are  already  piled  high  with  their  precious  cargo, 
among  which  may  be  observed  three  large  apes,  who  make 
themselves  perfectly  at  home.  Slung  to  the  main-mast  of  the 
nearest  vessel,  a  harp  is  depicted,  of  a  shape  which  may  even 
now  be  seen  in  the  hands  of  native  musicians  in  Cairo  and 
other  large  towns.  The  captain  stands  on  the  platform  at 
the  prow,  issuing  his  commands ;  and,  small  as  is  the  scale, 
the  very  natural  action  of  the  man  in  front  of  him,  who 
shouts  the  order  with  his  hand  to  his  mouth,  must  not  be 
overlooked.  The  long  inscription  engraved  in  vertical  col- 
umns at  either  corner  of  the  picture  reads  as  follows : 


QUEEN   HATASU.  291 

"  Very  great  lading  of  the  ships  with  the  marvels  of  the 
Land  of  Punt,  and  with  all  the  good  woods  of  Ta-nuter; 
with  heaps  of  kami  of  Ana,  with  trees  producing  green  ana  • 
with  ebony  and  pure  ivory;  with  gold,  and  green  agates 
found  in  the  Land  of  the  Amu ;  with  blocks  of  the  wood 
tascheps ;  with  ahem  perfumes ;  with  tasem  dogs ;  and  with 
hides  of  the  panthers  of  the  South ;  and  with  natives  of  the 
country,  their  women  and  children.  Never  since  the  beo-in- 
ning  of  the  world  have  the  like  wonders  been  brought  bv  any 


While  these  last  two  vessels  are  receiving  their  cargoes, 
the  other  three  have  already  weighed  anchor,  and  are  seen 
with  their  sails  set  and  filled  by  a  favorable  wind.  A  short 
inscription  states  that  this  is  "  the  peaceful  and  prosperous 
voyage  of  the  soldiers  of  his  Majesty  returning  to  Thebes, 
bringing  with  them  the  men  of  Punt..  They  bring  such  mar- 
vels of  the  Land  of  Punt  as  have  never  been  brought  bv  any 
King  of  Egypt,  on  account  of  the  greatness  of  the  King  of 
the  Gods,  Amen,  Lord  of  Thebes." 

The  return  voyage,  like  the  outward  voyage,  is  passed  over; 
and  the  next  incidents  of  this  curious  panorama  in  stone  take 
place  in  Thebes.  We  are  shown  nothing  of  the  arrival  of  the 
squadron,  nor  of  the  unlading  of  the  ships ;  the  rest  of  the 
tableaux  consisting  mainly  of  processions  of  priests,  soldiers, 
and  sailors.  The  order  in  which  these  processions  meet  and 
succeed  each  other  is  somewhat  confusing.  The  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions  in  this  part  of  the  building  are  also  greatly  mu- 
tilated, so  that  the  subjects  in  many  instances  have  to  be 
taken  as  their  own  interpreters.  It  seems  possible  that  they 
do  not  all  represent  the  return  of  the  expedition  from  Punt, 
but  that  some  may  have  reference  to  the  ceremonies  which 
accompanied  the  opening  of  the  temple.  The  unity  of 
the  composition  as  an  historic  whole  is  moreover  impaired 
by  the  introduction  of  other  foreign*  tributaries  besides 
those  brought  from  Punt ;  whence  it  may  be  concluded 
that  the  artist,  in  order  to  produce  a  more  brilliant  ef- 
fect, introduced  the  representatives  of  various  nations  who 


292 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


on   other  occasions,  had  laid  their  tribute   at  the  feet  of 
Hatasu. 

In  one  tableau  we  see  the  Sacred  Bark  of  Amen,  carried  by 
twenty -five  priests  and  preceded  by  libation-bearers,  divine 
standard-bearers,  and  priests  carrying  bunches  of  lotus-lilies. 
In  another,  the  sailors  of  the  expedition  march  in  single  file, 
armed  with  hatchets,  and  carrying  green  boughs  in  their 
hands — probably  of  the  Ana  sycamore.  A  drummer  goes  be- 
fore, and  the  inscription  says  that  "  the  sailors  of  the  royal 
squadron  shout  for  joy.  They  cry  aloud ;  the  heavens  rejoice. 
May  Amen  grant  long  life  to  his  daughter,  the  Builder  of  his 
Temple." 

Following  the  sailors,  comes  the  deputation  from  Punt,  the 

native  Somalis  distin- 
guished by  their  curved 
beards.  Some  of  these 
bring  trays  of  the  Ana 
gum;  others  carry 
large  jars,  probably 
filled  with  gold-dust; 
others,  again,  lead  apes 
of  the  two  species  in- 
digenous to  Pant,  i.e., 
the  Oynocephalus  Ha- 
madryas,  and  the  Cy- 
nocephalus  Babuinus, 
called  in  the  inscrip- 
tion the  Ani  ape,  and 
the  Kafoo  monkey.  To 

this  part  of  the  procession  belong  the  figures  of  men  lead- 
ing the  horse,  the  giraffe,  and  the  elephant,  which,  as  before- 
mentioned,  are  unfortunately  almost  destroyed.  Last  of  all 
come  more  sailors,  carrying  the  sycamore  saplings  in  bas- 
kets as  before. 

Marching  in  the  contrary  direction,  as  if  coming  to  meet 
and  welcome  the  sailors  on  landing,  we  are  shown  a  body  of 
young  soldiers,  representing  no  less  than  three  different  regi- 


TRIBCTARIES    OF   PUNT    WALKING    IN   THE    PROCES- 
SION  TO  THE  TEMPLE  OF  AMEN. 

(From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.) 


QUEEN  HATASU. 


293 


ments.  They  are  armed  with  axe,  bow,  and  shield ;  while 
some,  belonging  apparently  to  a  Nubian  corps,  brandish  the 
boomerang.  All  carry  green  boughs  in  token  of  festivity. 
Besides  this  procession,  which  may  be  called  the  Proces- 
sion of  Welcome,  there  is  another  and  a  very  interesting  cor- 
tege which  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Procession  of  the 
Queen. 

First  come  the  troops  of  the  royal  household,  designated 
in  the  inscription  as  the  soldiers  of  the  Per-aa,  or  palace.  (eb) 


PROCESSION    OF    THK    QUEEN. 

Her  Majesty's  fan-bearers,  quiver-bearer,  sandal-bearer,  and  grooms  with  hunting 
leopards.     (From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bahari.} 


Her  Majesty's  throne-chair  carried  by  twelve  bearers.     (From  Mariette's  Deir-el- 

Bahari.} 


Next  follow  the  Queen's  fan-bearers,  carrying  long-handled 
flabellae  of  conventionally  rendered  ostrich-feathers.  After 
these  come  the  Queen's  quiver-bearer  and  sandal-bearer,  and 
two  grooms  leading  her  Majesty's  hunting  leopards.  Her 
throne-chair,  carried  by  twelve  bearers,  brings  up  the  rear. 


294 


PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 


The  chair,  with  its  footstool,  stands  on  a  portable  platform, 

and  is  evidently  used  as  a  chaise- 
a-porteurs,  and  not  as  a  mere  em- 
blem of  royalty.  The  inscription 
beneath  the  chair  describes  the 
Queen  as  "this  good  God,"  and 
enumerates  her  titles  as  "  Lord  of 
the  Two  Lands,"  etc. 

Hatasu  has  presumably  been 
carried  to  the  Temple  of  Amen, 
where  she  is  seen  in  the  next 
tableau  standing,  staff  in  hand,  in 
the  full  costume  of  a  Pharaoh, 
face  to  face  with  Amen  enthroned. 
The  inscription  which  fills  the 
space  between  these  two  figures 
is  cast  into  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  the  god  and  the  Queen. 
Hatasu,  reverting  to  the  origin 
of  the  expedition,  proclaims  her 
intention  of  exploring  the  ways 
of  Punt,  that  there  may  be 

Ana  in  abundance  for  the  service  of  the  temple.     The  god, 


THE  QUEEN  RECEIVING  HER  TROOPS. 


CEREMONY  SUPPOSED  TO  TAKE  PLACE  IN  THE  TEMPLE  OF  AMEN  AT  KARNAK. 

(From  Mariette's  Deir-el-Bakari,  plate  11.) 

in  reply,  congratulates  her  on  the  success  of  her  expedition, 
and  states  that  he  himself,  together  with  Hathor,  the  Lady 


QUEEN  1IATASU. 


295 


of  Punt,  and  Urtheku,  Yice-Regent  of  the  Gods,  guided  the 
Egyptian  explorers  to  the  land  of  the  myrrh-trees. (86) 

An  ox  is  then  sacrificed  to  Amen,  the  sacrificial  act  being 
depicted  in  a  bas-relief,  from  which,  unfortunately,  the  next 
block  is  missing,  thus  carrying  away  one  corner  of  the  sub- 
ject. Here  we  see  the  altar  of  the  god  loaded  with  offer- 
ings, among  which  may  be  noted  a  haunch,  a  goose,  and 
various  kinds  of  cakes.  Four  priests  uplift  their  hands  in 
adoration;  another  carries  a  small  stand;  while  two  more  cut 
the  slaughtered  ox  limb  from  limb. 

After  this  the  tribute  of  Punt  is  formally  transferred  to 


MEASURING   THE    PRECIOUS   GUM. 

(From  Marietta's  Deir  -  el  -  Bahari.} 

the  treasury  of  the  temple ;  the  Ana  gum  (specified  in  the 
inscription  as  "green  Ana")  is  measured  and  registered  by 
the  temple  servants ;  while  the  bags  of  gold-dust,  the  bricks 
of  electrum,  the  ingots  of  pure  gold,  and  the  ivory  tusks,  are, 
by  a  conventional  fiction,  being  weighed  in  the  presence  of 
Horus  by  no  less  a  sacred  scribe  than  Thoth  himself. 


296  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

The  ceremony  at  the  Temple  of  Amen  being  concluded, 
the  expedition  is  rowed  across  the  Nile  in  a  flotilla  of  State 
galleys,  and  proceeds  to  render  homage  to  Hathor  in  that 
part  of  the  temple  at  Dayr-el-Bahari  over  which  she  espe- 
cially presides.  They  are  accompanied  by  a  detachment  of 
troops  composed  of  the  flo\ver  of  the  Egyptian  army. 

And  thus,  to  the  sound  of  trumpets  and  drums,  with  wav- 
ing of  green  boughs  and  shouts  of  triumph,  the  great  proces- 
sion lands  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Nile,  and,  followed 
by  an  ever-gathering  crowd,  takes  its  way  between  avenues 
of  sphinxes,  past  obelisks  and  pylons,  and  up  one  magnifi- 
cent flight  of  steps  after  another,  till  the  topmost  terrace  of 
the  Great  Temple  is  reached,  where  the  Queen  herself  wel- 
comes them  to  the  presence  of  Hathor  the  Beautiful,  the 
Lady  of  the  Western  Mountain,  the  Goddess-Regent  of  the 
Land  of  Punt. 

Such  is  the  story  told  in  the  sculptured  decorations  of 
this  most  interesting  and  beautiful  ruin.  Until  it  was  par- 
tially excavated  by  Mariette,  only  a  few  of  the  less  inter- 
esting sculptures  were  visible  above  the  sand  and  debris  in 
which  it  was  entombed.  Even  now,  a  systematically  con- 
ducted excavation  would  probably  bring  to  light  more 
inscriptions,  and  possibly  more  sculptures,  than  could  be 
discovered  by  Mariette  with  the  limited  means  at  his  com- 
mand. In  the  slight  but  interesting  work  in  which  he  has 
commemorated  the  results  of  his  labor  at  Dayr-el-Baha- 
ri, he  expresses  his  regret  that  he  never  had  the  oppor- 
tunity there  to  conduct  any  properly  organized  work,  such 
as  his  excavations  of  the  temples  of  Karnak,  Denderah,  and 
Edfu. 

Beyond  the  fact  that  Hatasu  rebuilt  and  restored  many 
ruined  shrines  and  temples  in  various  parts  of  her  kingdom, 
and  that  the  celebrated  Speos  Artemidos  ( "' )  was  her  work, 
and  not,  as  is  generally  supposed,  the  work  of  Thothmes 
III.,  we  know  little  or  nothing  more  of  the  events  of  her 
reign.  Seventeen  years  after  the  death  of  Thothmes  II.,  her 
name,  as  already  said,  disappears  from  the  monumental  rec- 


QUEEN  HATASU.  297 

ords,  and  we  may  assume  that  she  had  either  ceased  to  live 
or  ceased  to  reign. 

However  this  may  be,  her  successor,  Thothmes  III.,  en- 
deavored systematically  to  efface  her  memory  from  the 
minds  of  the  Egyptians  and  her  cartouches  from  the  public 
monuments  on  which  they  had  been  emblazoned.  It  is  her 
name  which  underlies  the  names  and  titles  of  Thothmes  III. 
not  only  in  the  Speos  Artemidos,  but  in  hundreds  of  cases  at 
Dayr-el-Bahari.  Only  in  one  single  instance  has  the  royal 
oval  containing  her  family  name  escaped  the  chisel  of  the 
mason ;  and  her  solar  name,  though  traceable  under  the 
chipped  surface,  is  almost  invariably  erased.  The  mere 
grammatical  construction  of  the  texts  bears  witness,  how- 
ever, to  the  wholesale  forgery  committed  by  Thothmes  III. ; 
for,  combined  with  the  Pharaonic  style  in  which  the  inscrip- 
tions are  couched,  the  feminine  suffixes  which  are  so  curi- 
ously appended  to  masculine  nouns  everywhere  remain  to 
show  in  whose  honor  these  innumerable  columns  of  hiero- 
glyphs were  engraved. 

The  tomb  of  Queen  Hatasu  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Rhind, 
in  1341,  excavated  in  the  cliff -side,  in  the  near  vicinity 
of  her  temple ;  but  its  identity  appears  since  then  to  have 
been  forgotten.  ( ee )  Although  the  mummies  of  her  father, 
Thothmes  I.,  of  her  husband  and  half -brother,  Thothmes 
II.,  and  of  her  half-brother  and  successor,  Thothmes  III., 
were  discovered  in  1881,  in  the  famous  tomb  of  the  Priest- 
Kings,  within  a  stone's -throw  of  her  temple  at  Dayr-el- 
Bahari,  the  mortal  remains  of  Hatasu  were  missing  from 
the  ranks  of  the  illustrious  dead  with  which  that  sepulchre 
was  crowded.  A  small  wooden  cabinet,  inlaid  with  ivory 
and  carved  with  both  her  cartouches,  was  found  among  the 
minor  objects  there  concealed.  It  contains,  strange  to  say, 
a  dessicated  human  liver — probably  hers.  This  would  look 
as  if  at  one  time  the  mummy  of  Hatasu  had  there  been  de- 
posited, in  company  with  the  mummies  of  her  kindred. 

A  few  scarabaei  dispersed  through  various  public  and  pri- 
vate collections ;  a  draughtsman  of  red  jasper,  in  the  form  of 


298  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

a  lion's  head  engraved  with  her  two  cartouches,  which  was 
found  at  Karnak,  and  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  Ghizeh ;  her 
signet-ring,  engraved  on  turquoise  and  mounted  in  gold,  in 
the  possession  of  an  English  gentleman ;  and  a  funerary  stat- 
uette, or  Ushabti,  inscribed  with  her  name  and  titles,  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Hague,  are,  with  one  exception,  the  only 
authentic  mementos  of  Hatasu  which  have  come  down  to 
our  time. 

The  exception  is  a  splendid  one,  and  of  great  historic  and 
archaeological  value,  being  an  object  of  no  less  importance 
than  the  throne-chair  of  this  great  Queen.  It  was  discovered 
by  some  Arabs  in  1885  or  1886  ;  brought  to  England  in  1887, 
and  exhibited  at  the  Jubilee  Exhibition  in  Manchester  that 
year.  At  the  close  of  the  exhibition  it  was  presented  by 
Mr.  Jesse  Ha  worth  to  the  British  Museum,  where  it  now  oc- 
cupies a  conspicuous  place  in  the  upper  Egyptian  gallery. 


THRONE-CHAIR    OF    QUEEN    HATASU. 

(From  a  photograph  from  the  original  in  the  British  Museum.) 

Specimens  of  ancient  Egyptian  stools  and  chairs,  some 
beautifully  inlaid  with  marqueterie  of  ivory  and  various 
woods,  may  be  seen  in  several  European  museums ;  but  in 
none  do  we  find  a  Pharaonic  throne  such  as  this,  plated  with 


QUEEN  HATASU.  299 

gold  and  silver,  and  adorned  with  the  emblems  of  Egyptian 
sovereignty.  It  is  not  absolutely  intact.  The  seat  and  back 
(which  may  have  been  made  of  plaited  palm-fibre  or  bands 
of  leather)  have  perished ;  but  all  that  remains  of  the  original 
piece  of  furniture  is  magnificent.  The  wood  is  very  hard  and 
heavy,  and  of  a  rich  dark  color  resembling  rosewood.  The 
four  legs  are  carved  in  the  shape  of  the  legs  of  some  hoofed 
animal,  probably  a  bull,  the  front  of  each  leg  being  decorated 
with  two  royal  basilisks  in  gold.  These  basilisks  are  erect, 
face  to  face,  their  tails  forming  a  continuous  coil  down  to  the 
rise  of  the  hoof.  Kound  each  fetlock  runs  a  silver  band,  and 
under  each  hoof  there  was  originally  a  plate  of  silver,  of 
which  only  a  few  fragments  remain.  The  cross-rail  in  front 
of  the  seat  is  also  plated  with  silver.  The  arms  (or  what 
would  be  the  arms  if  placed  in  position)  are  very  curious, 
consisting  of  two  flat  pieces  of  wood  joined  at  right  angles, 
so  as  to  form  an  upright  affixed  to  the  framework  of  the 
back  and  a  horizontal  support  for  the  arm  of  the  sitter. 
These  are  of  the  same  dark  wood  as  the  legs  and  rails,  hav- 
ing a  border-line  at  each  side ;  while  down  the  middle,  with 
head  erect  at  the  top  of  the  upright  limb,  and  tail  undulating 
downward  to  the  finish  of  the  arm-rest,  is  a  basilisk  carved 
in  some  lighter  colored  wood,  and  incrusted  with  hundreds 
of  minute  silver  annulets,  to  represent  the  markings  of  the 
reptile.  The  nails  connecting  the  various  parts  are  round- 
headed  and  plated  with  gold,  thus  closely  resembling  the  or- 
namental brass-headed  nails  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The 
gold  and  silver  are  both  of  the  purest  quality. 

Of  the  royal  ovals  which  formerly  adorned  this  beautiful 
chair  of  state,  only  one  longitudinal  fragment  remains.  This 
fragment,  which  measures  some  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length, 
is  carved  on  both  sides,  and  contains  about  one-fourth  part  of 
what  may  be  called  the  field  of  the  cartouche.  Enough,  how- 
ever,  remains  to  identify  on  one  side  the  throne -name,  and 
on  the  other  side  the  family  name,  of  Queen  Hatasu.  The 
carving  is  admirable,  every  detail— even  to  the  form  of  the 
nails  and  the  creases  of  the  finger-joints  in  part  of  a  hiero- 


300  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

glyph  representing  a  hand — being  rendered  with  the  most 
perfect  truth  and  delicacy.  The  throne-name,  "  Ka-ma-ka," 
is  surrounded  by  a  palm -frond  bordering,  and  the  family 
name,  "  Amen-Knum  Hatasu,"  by  a  border  of  concentric  spi- 
rals. The  wood  of  this  cartouche  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
basilisks  upon  the  arms,  being  very  hard  and  close-grained, 
and  of  a  tawny,  yellow  hue,  like  boxwood.  Some  gorgeously 
colored  throne-chairs  depicted  on  the  walls  of  a  side-chamber 
in  the  tomb  of  Rameses  III.  at  Thebes  show  exactly  into 
what  parts  of  the  framework  these  royal  insignia  were  in- 
serted, and  might  serve  as  models  for  the  complete  restora- 
tion of  this  most  valuable  and  interesting  relic. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  dark  wood  of  the  chair  and 
the  lighter  wood  of  the  basilisks  are  of  growths  unknown  to 
Egyptian  soil ;  and  it  may  well  be  that  both  originally  form- 
ed part  of  that  very  cargo  which  the  exploring  squadron  of 
Queen  Hatasu  brought  home  to  Thebes,  some  three  thousand 
five  hundred  years  ago,  from  the  far  distant  shores  of  the 
Land  of  Punt. 


LITTLE  CABINET  OF  HATASU. 


]STOTES. 


NOTE  1,  page  5. — Dr.  Birch's  calculation  was  based  upon  the  supposition,  then 
universally  accepted,  that  embalmment  was  not  practised  in  ancient  Egypt  till 
after  2000  B.C.,  no  earlier  specimens  of  embalmed  and  bandaged  mummies  having 
been  discovered  at  the  time  when  he  wrote.  See  Birch's  Guide  to  the  First  and 
Second  Egyptian  Rooms  of  the  Britisli  Museum,  1878.  When,  however,  the  Pyra- 
mid of  King  Pepi  (Sixth  Dynasty,  circa  3500  B.C.)  was  opened  in  1880,  the  mum- 
ruled  remains  of  that  very  ancient  king  were  not  only  found  to  be  impressed  by 
bandages,  but  portions  of  these  actual  bandages  were  found  strewn  on  the  floor  of 
the  sepulchral  chamber.  "On  a  mis  au  jour  les  sepultures  du  dernier  roi  de  la 
yme  Dynastie,  Ounas,  et  de  plusieurs  rois  de  la  Vlme,  Teti,  Pepi  Ier,  Merenra,  Pepi 
II.  La  momic  de  Merenra  a  ete  trouvee  depouillee  de  ses  bandelettes,  qui  avaient 
etc'  arrachees  a  une  epoque  ancienne;  mais  la  trace  de  ces  bandelettes,  imprimee 
en  relief  sur  la  peau,  est  restee  parfaitement  visible  et  prouve  que  les  proce'de's  d'etn- 
baumement  deja  constates  pour  les  6poques  poste'rieures,  e'taient  en  usage  des  la 
Vjme  Dynastie."  See  M.  Maspero's  paper  on  Egyptian  Exploration,  addressed  to 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-lettres,  in  the  Revue  de  V  Histoire  des  Reli- 
gions, vol.  iv.,  No.  4,  1881.  See  also  "  Lying  in  State  in  Cairo,"  by  Amelia  B.  Ed- 
wards, Harper's  Monthly  Magazine,  July,  1882. 

NOTE  2,  page  5. — For  some  particulars  respecting  the  shipping  of  mummies  for 
manure  during  the  reign  of  the  Khedive  Ismail,  see  MacCoan's  Egypt  an  It  h,  chap, 
viii.,  p.  168. 

NOTE  3,  page  18. — The  colossal  seated  statue  of  Rameses  II.  in  black  granite, 
and  the  remarkable  headless  sphinx  here  referred  to,  are  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts  at  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 

NOTE  4,  page  23. — Many  of  these  interesting  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Louvre. 

NOTE  5,  page  24. — Ancient  Egyptian  flint  weapons  and  implements  have  been 
found  in  large  numbers  in  various  parts  of  Egypt,  but  they  do  not  indicate  what  is 
understood  as  a  Stone  Age,  since  they  all  belong  to  historic  times.  Flint  saws,  flint 
fruit-scoops,  etc.,  have  recently  been  found  in  large  numbers  by  Mr.  Petrie,  in  the 
Twelfth  Dynasty  town  of  Kahun.  Flint  chisels  are  also  found  in  large  quantities 
in  the  turquoise  mines  of  Wady  Maghara,  dating  apparently  from  the  earliest  to  the 
latest  time  at  which  these  mines  were  worked,  thus  showing  that  flint  was  not  su- 
perseded by  bronze  where  flint  was  equally  effectual.  See  Chabas's  L'Antiquite 
Historique,  chap.  v. ;  also  Lord's  Penimtila  of  Sinai,  p.  433,  et  seq. 

NOTE  6,  page  30. — By  such  as  desire  to  become  better  acquainted  with  the  styles 
and  devices  of  these  fascinating  amulets,  Mr.  Petrie's  illustrated  Hand-book  of  His- 
torical Scarabs  will  be  thoroughly  appreciated. 

NOTE?,  page  31. — For  illustrations  of  the  various  stages  of  the  lotus  pattern  on 
the  potsherds  of  Naukratis,  see  the  plates  to  Naukratis,  Part  I.,  by  Mr.  Petrie.  and 
the  plates  to  Naukratis.  Part  II.,  by  Mr.  Ernest  A.  Gardner.  See  also  Prof.  \V.  H. 
Goodyear's  paper  on  "  The  Origin  of  the  Ionic  Capital  and  the  Anthemion  in  Greek 
Art,""  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  A rcli ecology,  vol.  iii.  (1888);  also  Mr. 
Goodyear's  important  forthcoming  work,  entitled  The  Grammar  oft/*  Lotus. 


302  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

NOTE  8,  page  81. — "  Amasis  was  partial  to  the  Greeks,  and,  among  other  favors 
which  he  granted  them,  gave  to  such  as  liked  to  settle  in  Egypt  the  city  of  Naukra- 
tis  for  their  residence.  To  those  who  only  wished  to  trade  upon  the  coast,  and  did 
not  want  to  fix  their  abode  in  the  country,  he  grunted  certain  lands  where  they 
might  set  up  altars  and  erect  temples  to  the  Gods.  Of  these  temples  the  grandest 
and  most  famous,  which  is  also  the  most  frequented,  is  called  '  The  Hellenium.' 
It  was  built  conjointly  by  the  lonians,  Dorians,  and  JSolians,  the  following  cities 
taking  part  in  the  work :  the  Ionian  States  of  Chios,  Teos,  Phocaea,  and  Klazomenae ; 
Rhodes,  Cnidus,  Halicarnassus,  Phuselis  of  the  Dorians,  and  Mytilene  of  the  Jioli- 
ans.  These  are  the  States  to  whom  the  temple  belongs,  and  they  have  a  right  of 
appointing  the  governors  of  the  factory ;  the  other  cities  which  claim  a  share  in 
the  building  claim  what  in  no  sense  belongs  to  them.  Three  nations,  however, 
consecrated  for  themselves  separate  temples — the  Eginetans  one  to  Zeus,  the  Sami- 
ans  to  Hera,  and  the  Milesians  to  Apollo." — Herodotus,  Book  II.,  chap,  clxxviii. 

NOTE  9,  page  36. — See  Naukratis,  Part  II.,  by  Ernest  A.  Gardner. 

NOTE  10,  page  38. — The  Great  Sphinx  is  attributed  by  Mariette  to  the  mythic 
ages  before  the  advent  of  Mena,  the  first  king  of  the  First  Dynasty  ;  and  Maspero 
considers  it  to  be,  if  not  actually  prehistoric,  at  all  events  the  oldest  monument  in 
Egypt.  The  Sphinx  has  been  several  times  cleared  from  the  ever-drifting  sands  of 
the  desert.  The  first  occasion  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  in  the  time  of 
Thothmes  IV.,  that  king  having  celebrated  the  fact  by  a  votive  tablet  placed 
against  the  breast  of  the  Sphinx,  and  which  yet  remains  in  situ.  He  therein  relates 
that,  having  been  upon  one  of  his  hunting  expeditions,  he  lay  down  to  rest  in  the 
shadow  of  the  huge  image.  He  there  fell  asleep  and  dreamed  a  dream  wherein 
the  Sphinx  conjured  him  to  clear  away  the  sand  in  which  it  was  nearly  buried. 
After  this  it  was  cleared  again  in  the  time  of  Pisebkhanu,  a  king  of  the  Twenty- 
first  Dynasty,  who  has  also  left  a  tablet  on  the  spot ;  and  it  must  have  been  cleared 
again  in  Roman  times,  when  the  paws  and  breast  were  repaired  with  slabs  of  lime- 
stone. From  that  time  till  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  sand  continued  to 
accumulate  without  being  disturbed ;  but  it  was  once  again  cleared  down  to  the 
paws  in  honor  of  the  visit  of  the  Emperor  and  Empress  of  the  French  in  1869. 

NOTE  11,  page  44. — Turn,  or  Atum,  the  God  of  the  Setting  Sun,  was  also  wor- 
shipped at  Heliopolis.  He  is  represented  as  a  man  walking,  with  a  head-dress 
composed  of  the  lotus,  with  drooping  calyx  leaves,  surmounted  by  two  straight 
feathers. 

NOTE  12,  page  44.  The  hieroglyphic  spelling  of  "  Thukut,"  or  "Sukut,"  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion  among  Egyptologists,  the  initial  hieroglyph  of  this 
name  being  capable  of  a  twofold  reading.  M.  Naville  has,  however,  shown  by  anal- 
ogy that  this  sign  must  have  been  used  to  express  the  sibilant  S  as  well  as  the 
diphthong  Th  ;  as,  notably,  in  the  Greek  transcription  of  the  Egyptian  name  of  the 
city  of  Thebnuter,  which  must  have  had  the  sibilant  pronunciation,  as  it  was  tran- 
scribed Sebennytiis  by  the  Greeks.  See  The  Store-City  of  Pithom  and  the  Route  of 
the  Exodus,  Sd'edition  (1888),  by  E.  Naville. 

NOTE  13,  page  47. — The  Septuagint  was  the  official  and  authoritative  Bible  of 
Hellenistic  Jews,  accepted  by  the  Jewish  high-priest  at  Alexandria,  and  author- 
ized by  the  high-priest  at  Jerusalem  and  the  seventy  elders.  These  latter  were, 
in  fact,  responsible  for  the  work,  and  are  accredited  with  the  performance  of  the 
task  of  selection  and  translation.  According  to  a  well-founded  tradition,  the  Sep- 
tuagint was  undertaken  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia  (286-24*7  B.C.),  and  be- 
gun, if  not  completed,  at  Alexandria,  the  law  being  the  part  first  translated.  We 
quote  the  following  from  the  author  of  the  article  "  Septuagint,"  in  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  1886:  "From  Ecclesiasticus  it  appears  that  about  130  B.C.  not 
only  the  law  but  the  'prophets  and  other  books'  were  extant  in  Greek.  With  this 
it  agrees  that  the  most  ancient  relics  of  Jewish-Greek  literature  all  show  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Septuagint.  The  later  translations  of  prophets  and  other  books 
were  private  enterprises,  as  appears  from  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus  and  the 
Colophon  to  Esther.  It  appears  also  that  it  was  long  before  the  whole  Septuagint 
was  finished  and  treated  as  a  complete  work.  The  work  of  translation  was  grad- 


NOTES.  303 

Aus,  and  the  New  Testament  w 
NOTE  14,  page  60. — See  Josephus's  Antiquities  of  the  Jeicx,  xiii.,  3. 


ual,  and  not  uniform.     Philo,  Josephus,  and  the  New  Testament  writers  use  the 
Sepuiagint." 


Naville. 

NOTE  17,  page  73. — For  an  admirable  account  of  the  methods  of  ancient  Esvp. 
tian  painting,  see  Maspero's  Egyptian  Ardueology,  chap,  iv.,  pp.  164-201. 

NOTE  18,  page  75. — See  Pliny's  Historia  Xatnralis,  Boole  XXXV.,  chap.  iii.  See 
also  Woltmann's  History  of  Painting,  chap.  i. 

NOTE  19,  page  75. — See  Plinie's  Natnrall  Historic,  translated  by  Philemon  Hol- 
land, Book  XXXV.,  chap,  iii.,  London,  1601. 

NOTE  20,  page  78. — See  Les  Origines  de  VHistorie  d'apres  la  Bible,  chap.  xiii. 
Fran9ois  Lenormant.  See  also  Note  27. 

NOTE  21,  page  79. — See  "Les  Attaques  dirigees  contre  1'Egypte,"  Revue  Arche- 
oloffique,  nouvelle  ser,  Vol.  XVI.,  by  E.  de  Rouge. 

NOTE  22,  page  80. — For  a  full  account  of  these  discoveries,  and  fac-similes  of  the 
archaic  alphabetic  signs  scratched  on  the  potsherds  of  Kahun  and  Gurob,  see 
Mr.  Petrie's  new  volume,  entitled  Kahun,  Gurob,  and  Hawura ;   Triibner  &  Co 
1890. 

NOTE  23,  page  81. — Mr.  Lepage  Renouf  has  recently  cast  grave  doubts  upon  the 
usually  accepted  significance  of  the  papyrus  and  lotus  groups,  which  he  maintains 
in  nowise  stand  for  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  It  has  also  been  suggested  by  M. 
Grebaut  that  another  well-known  group  of  hieroglyphs,  signifying  "the  two  lands," 
may  refer  not  to  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  but  to  the  right  and  left  banks  of  the 
Nile. 

NOTE  24,  page  83. — From  the  earliest  date  at  which  we  have  any  knowledge  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  ancient  people  of  Syria,  we  find  them  delighting 
in  rich  and  picturesque  raiment,  after  the  fashion  of  the  garments  worn  by  the 
typical  Syrian  in  our  illustration.  Joseph's  coat  of  many  colors  was,  we  may  be 
sure,  a  fringed  and  embroidered  garment  such  as  these ;  and  that  this  kind  of 
embroidery  was  carried  to  a  point  of  great  perfection  at  a  later  period  is  shown 
by  the  enumeration  of  the  booty  taken  from  Sisera  in  the  "  Song  of  Deborah,"  where 
we  read  of  "a  prey  of  divers  colours  of  needle-work  on  both  sides  meet  for  the 
necks  of  them  that  take  the  spoil." — Judges,  chap,  v.,  verse  30.  See  also  Psalm 
xlv.,  verses  13  and  14:  "The  King's  daughter  is  all  glorious  within  :  her  clothing  is 
of  wrought  gold.  She  shall  be  brought  unto  the  King  in  raiment  of  needle-work." 
See  also  the  descriptions  of  the  hangings  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  garments  of 
the  priests  in  the  books  of  Exodus  and  Leviticus. 

NOTE  25,  page  84. — The  Libyan  tribe,  called  the  Maatsaiu  (thus  spelled  phonetic- 
ally in  the  hieroglyphs),  are  represented  by  the  Maa/ehs  of  the  present  day.  They 
were  employed  by  the  Pharaohs  as  gendarmes,  or  armed  police.  See  "  La  Car- 
riere  administrative  de  deux  hauts  fonctionnaires  Egyptiens,"  Journal  Axiatiqne, 
Avril-Juin,  1890,  by  Professor  Maspero. 

NOTIO  26,  page  91. — Mr.  Ernest  Gardner,  referring  to  this  beautiful  Sphinx  plate 
in  Naukratis,  Part  II.,  writes  as  follows:  "This  is  a  plaque-painting  rather  than 
a  vase  design.  It  is  executed  with  the  utmost  delicacy  and  ease  in  four  colours — 
yellow,  brown,  purple  or  red,  and  white ;  these  are  the  typical  four  colours  of  early 
painting,  and  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  they  were  the  four  that  characterized  the 
technique  of  Polygnotus  and  other  early  masters.  Here,  then,  we  have  nn  example 
closely  approaching  to  a  panel  picture,  showing  us  exactly  how  these  colours  were 
used.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  thing  of  all  is  the  use  of  touches  of  white  to 
bring  out  the  high  lights.  Unfortunately  it  is  hardly  possible  to  see  this  now  ;  but 
when  the  plate  was  first  taken  out  of  the  ground  such  touches  were  distinctly  vis- 
ible in  some  places,  especially  on  the  front  of  the  fore-legs  and  paws.  The  use  of 
the  other  colours  may  be  pretty  clearly  seen  on  the  plate.  The  outlines  are  drawn 
in  brown  with  a  brush,  but  incised  lines  are  also  used,  especially  to  indicate  the 


304  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

plumage  on  the  breast.  Above  the  head  of  the  sphinx  two  small  holes  were  bored 
through  the  rim  of  the.  plate,  clearly  indicating  that  it  was  intended  to  be  hung  up, 
in  all  probability  as  a  picture  to  decorate  the  wall  of  the  tjmple.  If  so,  we  may 
with  yet  more  certainty  regard  this  plaque  as  affording  us  invaluable  information 
as  to  the  style  prevalent  in  the  free  paintings  of  the  period — if,  indeed,  any  existed 
in  the  sixth  century  which  were  not  purely  decorative  in  their  subject  and  treat- 
ment." See  Naukrati*,  Part  II.,  chap,  v.,  p.  45,  by  Ernest  A.  Gardner. 

NOTE  27,  page  92. — According  to  Herodotw,  Book  I.,  chap,  xciv.,  there  was  a 
great  famine  in  Lydia  in  the  time  of  Atys,  son  of  Menes,  wherefore  the  King  di- 
vided the  nation  in  two  halves,  and  it  was  decided  by  casting  lots  which  half  should 
remain  in  Lydia,  and  which  should  go  into  exile.  The  lots  being  drawn,  he  gave 
his  son  Tyrsenos  to  the  emigrants  for  their  leader,  and  they  built  ships,  ami  put 
out  to  sea  in  search  of  some  fertile  place  in  which  to  settle.  Having  touched  at 
the  ports  of  many  nations,  they  at  last  colonized  Umbria,  and  there  founded  cities 
which  they  still  continued  to  inhabit  in  the  historian's  own  time.  He  further  goes 
on  to  say  that  they  ceased  to  call  themselves  Lydians,  and,  taking  the  name  of 
their  early  leader,  called  themselves  Tyrsenes.  This  is  the  same  people  whom  we 
meet  with  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  chronicles  as  the  Tursha.  And  here,  again, 
we  find  them  evidently  in  search  of  a  new  home  in  which  to  establish  themselves 
as  a  settled  colony.  During  the  reign  of  Meneptah  Egypt  was  invaded  by  the 
Libyans,  in'  alliance  with  the  Achaeans,  the  Tursha,  and  other  tribes  from  the  coast- 
lands  of  Asia  Minor.  In  this  coalition  the  Tursha  appear  as  emigrants  under  arms, 
rather  than  as  mere  invaders  in  search  of  plunder;  for  it  is  expressly  said  in  the 
great  inscription  which  records  the  defeat  of  the  invaders  that  "  the  Tursha  took 
the  lead  in  this  war,  all  the  warriors  from  that  country  having  brought  their  wives 
and  their  children."  If,  however,  the  Tursha,  or  Tyrsenes,  were  in  search  of  a  new 
country  in  the  time  of  Meneptah,  they  seem  to  have  found  a  home  by  the  time  of 
Rameses  III.,  some  sixty  years  later;  for,  in  the  great  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the 
Graeco-Asiatic  and  European  tribes,  which  took  place  during  the  reign  of  that  Pha- 
raoh, the  Tursha  occupy  but  a  secondary  place,  and  send  only  a  small  contingent 
to  the  war.  Tins,  as  Lenormant  observes,  points  to  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  the 
nation  had  by  this  time  found  their  long-sought  place  of  settlement  in  Central  Italy. 
According  to  this  authority,  it  was  towards  the  fifteenth  or  fourteenth  century,  B.C., 
that  the  Tursha,  or  Tyrsenes,  who  up  to  that  time  had  inhabited  the  western  coast 
of  Asia  and  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean,  emigrated  en  masse  in  a  westward  direction, 
and  settled  in  Central  Italy.  See  Les  Oriffines  de  VHixtoire  d'apre*  la  Bible,  chap, 
xiii.,  by  Fran9ois  Lenormant. 

NOTE  28,  page  94. — It  was  Apollodortis  who  first  combined  landscape  and  figures, 
and  who  first  abandoned  the  old  system  of  monochrome  background.  He  was  also 
the  first  of  the  Greek  painters  who  mastered  the  difficulties  of  light  and  shadow. 
"Apollodorus  was  the  first  to  give  his  pictures  a  natural  and  definite  background 
in  true  perspective;  he  was  the  first,  it  is  emphatically  stated,  who  rightly  managed 
chiaroscuro  and  the  fusion  of  colors.  Hence  he  earned  the  title  of  Ski.agraphofi,  or 
shadow  painter.  He  will  also  have  been  the  first  to  soften  off  the  outlines  of  his 
figures,  and  thus  no  longer  to  draw  and  tint  merely,  but,  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word,  to  paint  with  his  brush.  For  this  reason  we  may,  with  Brunn,  in  a  certain 
sense  call  Apollodorus  the  first  true  painter." — Woltmann's  History  of  Painting, 
chap,  ii.,  p.  46. 

NOTE  29,  page  96. — For  a  more  detailed  account  of  these  portraits  and  their  dis- 
covery, see  Biahmu,  Hawara,  and  Arsinoe,  by  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  chaps,  iii.,  vi. 

NOTE  80,  page  104. — In  the  Graco-Roman  cemetery  at  Hawara,  in  which  these 
portraits  were  discovered,  Mr.  Petrie  found  a  large  number  of  mummies  inwrapped 
in  garments  both  woven  and  embroidered  in  rich  colors  and  elegant  designs,  many 
in  extraordinary  preservation.  Woollen  socks,  various  kinds  of  shoes  and  sandals 
in  leather  and  palm-leaf,  as  well  as  a  number  of  head-scarfs  and  hair-nets  in  deli- 
cate netted  thread-work  and  woollen-work  were  also  found.  Specimens  of  these 
hair-nets  and  netted  head-dresses  are  to  be  seen  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
London.  These  very  curious  relics  of  wearing  apparel,  etc,  date  from.  200  A.D.  to 


NOTES.  305 

300  A.D.  ;  they  are  therefore  of  later  origin  than  the  portraits,  and  belong  to  sub- 
sequent interments.  The  manufacture  of  netting  for  trimming  purposes,  etc.,  may 
however,  have  been  common  long  before. 

NOTE  31,  page  116. — For  full  particulars  of  these  early  tombs  and  their  contents, 
see  Les  Mastabas  de  Vancien  Empire,  by  A.  Mariette  Bey. 

NOTE  32,  page  118. — See  Mr.  Lepage  Renoufs  volume  of  Hibbert  Lectures,  1879. 
Lecture  IV.,  p.  147  et  seq. 

NOTE  33,  page  119. — The  tablet  of  Pepi-Na  is  in  the  Museum  of  Ghizeh. 

NOTE  34,  page  1 20. — The  tablet  of  Napu  is  in  the  possession  of  Jesse  Haworth 
Esq. 

NOTE  35,  page  140. — The  presence  of  these  statues  of  servants  in  tombs  of  the 
ancient  empire  may  very  possibly  point  to  a  far  distant  prehistoric  time,  when  the 
servants  were  themselves  sacrificed  and  buried  in  the  tombs  of  their  masters. 

NOTE  36,  page  143. — See  Sir  Charles  Newton's  description  of  the  treatment  of 
the  human  figure  by  Greek  sculptors,  Essays  on  Archfeoloyy,  chap,  viii.,  p.  360  (1 880). 

NOTE  37,  page  149.— The  first  Sullier  Papyrus  (British  Museum),  after  having 
been  long  regarded  as  an  historical  document,  has  been  shown  bv  Professor  Mas- 
pero  to  be  a  popular  story,  based  probably  upon  fact,  but  indebted  for  some  of  its 
incidents  to  the  common  stock  of  Oriental  folk-lore.  Of  this  king,  Apepi,  we  only 
know  that  he  repaired  and  embellished  the  Great  Temple  of  Tanis,  that  he  built 
a  temple  to  Sutekh,  a  Semitic  deity,  and  that  it  was  in  his  time  that  the  Tlieban 
princes,  headed  by  Sekenen-Ra-Ta-a,  commenced  that  war  of  independence  which 
resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Ilyksos.  The  first  Sallier  Papyrus,  which  is  un- 
fortunately much  mutilated,  begins  by  describing  how  "  the  whole  land  did  homage 
to  King  Apepi,  and  how  the  King  took  unto  himself  Sutekh  for  lord,  refusing  to 
serve  any  other  God  in  the  whole  land."  It  then  goes  on  to  say  how  he  called  his 
counsellors  and  magicians  together,  to  assist  him  in  framing  a  fantastic  message  to 
Sekenen-Ra-Ta-a,  in  which  he  desired  that  prince  to  hunt  down  the  hippopotamuses 
of  Upper  Egypt,  because  they  prevented  his  sleep  by  day  and  by  night.  Sekenen- 
Ra-Ta-a  received  this  message  with  dismay,  and  summoned  his  captains  and  gen- 
erals to  advise  him  as  to  its  meaning,  whereupon  they  were  all  struck  with  silence 
and  terror.  Here  the  manuscript  breaks  off  abruptly,  and  we  are  left  with  the 
enigma  unsolved.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  Apepi  imposed  an  impossible  task 
upon  the  Theban  prince,  in  order  to  compel  his  acceptance  of  some  unwelcome  al- 
ternative, such  as  the  abjuration  of  his  national  faith,  and  his  conversion  to  the 
worship  of  Sutekh.  What  the  historic  kernel  of  this  story  may  have  been  it  is 
impossible  to  say,  but  it  seems  probable  that  Apepi  endeavored  to  abolish  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Gods  of  Egypt,  in  order  to  impose  upon  his  subjects  the  exclusive  worship 
of  Sutekh.  Such  a  proposal,  if  addressed  to  the  tributary  princes  of  Thebes,  who 
were  the  direct  descendants  of  the  great  Twelfth  Dynasty  Pharaohs,  would  have 
been  sufficient  to  precipitate  that  great  rising  which  was  already  inevitable.  The 
first  Sallier  Papyrus  has  been  translated  into  English  by  E.  L.  Lushington,  in  Rec- 
ords of  the  Past,  vol.  viii. ;  into  German  by  Brugsch,  in  his  Geshichte  ^Kgyptens 
unter  'den  Pharaonen  ;  and  into  French  by  Professor  Maspero,  in  his  Conies  Popu- 
lairex  de  tEyypte  Ancienne.  There  are  also  translations  by  Ebers,  Chabas,  and 
others. 

NOTE  38,  page  149. — See  M.  Naville's  Bubastis,  being  the  Eighth  Annual  Memoir 
published  by  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund. 

NOTE  39,  page  157. — See  "Lying  in  State  in  Cairo,"  in  Harper's  Montldy  Maga- 
zine for  July,  1882. 

NOTK  40,  page  157. — The  highest  honor  which  an  Oriental  can  bestow  upon  a 
stranger  or  a  friend  is  to  abnegate  in  his  favor  the  tomb  prepared  for  his  own  mor- 
tal remains.  It  was  thus  that  Joseph  of  Arimnthea  gave  up  his  own  sepulchre,  as 
related  in  Matthew  xxvii.,  57-60;  Mark  xv.,  43-46;  and  Luke  xxiii.,  60-53.  An 
interesting  modern  instance  of  how  the  modern  Arab  still  prepares  his  tomb  during 
his  own  lifetime,  and  how,  when  influenced  by  friendship,  he  offers  to  dedicate  it 
not  only  to  the  remains  of  a  stranger,  but  to  a  stranger  who  is  a  woman  and  au  in- 
fidel, is  recorded  in  the  experiences  of  Lady  Duff  Gordon. 
20 


306  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

NOTE  41,  page  160. — "'Yavan'  is  the  Hebrew  rendering  of  'Ionia,'  and  is  em- 
ployed  in  the  Bible  in  a  generic  sense,  designating  the  Greek  nationalities  collect- 
ively." See  Lenorinant,  Lts  Origincs  de  VHistoire  d'apres  la  Bible,  chap.  xiii. 

NOTE  42,  page  164. — See  "  Memoire  sur  les  Attaques  dirigees  contre  1'Egypte," 
Revue  Arckeologigue,  1867,  by  De  Roug6. . 

NOTE  43,  page  168. — The  wall-paintings  and  inscriptions  of  these  extremely  in- 
teresting tombs  have  just  been  exhaustively  copied  by  means  of  photographs  and 
colored  tracings' by  Messrs.  Newberry,  Fraser,  and  Blackden,  agents  of  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund,  this  being  the  first  series  of  monuments  undertaken  for  the 
great  Archaeological  Survey  of  Egypt. 

NOTE  44,  page  169. — See  Mr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie's  Lecture  on  Naukratis,  de- 
livered at  the  Annual  General  Meeting  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  October  28, 
1885.  Printed  in  the  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Society,  pp.  14-32. 

NOTE  45,  page  170. — For  the  Orchomenos  ceiling,  see  Schliemann's  Orchomenos; 
Leipzig,  1881,  PI.  I. 

NOTE  46,  page  171. — See  Dr.  Schliemann's  Orckomeno.t. 

NOTE  47,  page  174. — "The  age  of  the  Doric  temple  at  Corinth  is  not,  it  is  true, 
satisfactorily  determined ;  but  the  balance  of  evidence  would  lead  us  to  believe 
that  it  belongs  to  the  age  of  Cypselus,  or  about  650  B.C.  The  pillars  are  less  than 
four  diameters  in  height,  and  the  architrave — the  only  part  of  the  superstructure 
that  now  remains — is  proportionately  heavy.  It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  massive 
specimens  of  architecture  existing,  more  so  than  even  its  rock-cut  prototype  at 
Beni-Hassan,  from  which  it  is  most  indubitably  copied.  As  a  work  of  art,  it  fails 
from  excess  of  strength,  a  fault  common  to  most  of  the  efforts  of  a  rude  people, 
ignorant  of  their  own  resources,  and  striving,  by  the  expression  of  physical 
strength  alone,  to  obtain  all  the  objects  of  their  art." — History  of  Architecture, 
vol.  i.,  Book  III.,  chap,  ii.,  p.  220,  by  Fergusson. 

NOTE  48,  page  181. — See  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  vol.  iii.,  Nos.  8  and  4. 

NOTE  49,  page  195. — An  excellent  translation  of  this  papyrus,  published,  with 
commentary,  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1888,  has  been  made  by  Professor  Howard 
Osgood,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

NOTE  50,  page  196. — Mr.  Petrie  has  more  recently  found  at  Gurob  fragments  of 
the  Phaedo  of  Plato  and  the  Antigone  of  Euripides — certain  portions  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  play  being  hitherto  unknown. 

NOTE  51,  page  213. — It  was  the  opinion  of  De  Rouge  that  this  papyrus  is  a  later 
copy,  and  that  the  date  and  signature  are  mere  transcriptions  from  an  earlier  docu- 
ment. Errnan,  basing  his  opinion  upon  the  fact  that  a  well-known  scribe  named 
Pentaur  lived  some  70  years  later  during  the  reign  of  Meneptah,  doubts  not  only 
that  the  copy  was  made  in  the  7th  year  of  Rameses  II.  but  that  Pentaur  was  the 
author.  It  is,  however,  quite  possible  that  the  Pentaur  of  Meneptah's  time  was  a 
son  of  the  original  Pentaur,  inheriting  his  profession  and  his  office.  In  any  case, 
the  name  of  Pentaur  was  not  uncommon ;  and  the  fact  that  there  was  a  Pentaur  in 
the  time  of  Meneptah  is  really  no  reason  for  dismissing  as  mythical  the  Pentaur  of  the 
preceding  reign.  In  the  mean  while  the  colophon  can  only  be  accepted  as  it  stands. 

NOTE  52,  page  217. — Besides  the  better  known  transcriptions  of  this  poem  on  the 
pylon-walls  of  Luxor  and  the  Ramesseum,  and  in  the  great  hall  at  Abu-Simbel,  there 
are  some  remains  of  other  transcriptions  in  the  Temples  of  Rameses  II.  at  Abydos 
in  Upper  Egypt,  and  Derr  in  Nubia. 

NOTE  53,  page  218. — See  Chabas,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  ^Egypt:  Sprache,  1864.  Also 
Lieblein,  in  a  paper  entitled  "  Les  Anciens  Egyptiens  Connaissaient-ils  le  Mouve- 
ment  de  la  Terre  ?"  Transactions  of  the  Cougres  Provincial  des  Orientalistes  Fraii- 
9ais,  1  Bulletins,  vol.  ii. 

NOTE  54,  page  220. — The  Prisse  Papyrus  has  of  late  been  admirably  translated 
into  French  from  the  original  Egyptian  by  M.  Philippe  Virey  (1887). 

NOTE  55,  page  221.— Translated  by  M.  Pierret,  Recueil  des  Travaux,  1870. 

NOTE  56,  page  222. — These  sixteen  tales,  some  of  which  are  fragments  only,  are 
all  to  be  found  in  the  latest  edition  of  M.  Maspero's  delightful  little  volume  of  Conies 
Egyptiennes,  1889. 


NOTES.  307 

NOTE  57,  page  223.— See  Etudes  Egyptiennes,  G.  Maspero,  Tome  I,  Fascicule  3, 1883. 

NOTE  58,  page  225. — The  flowers  mentioned  in  this  love-song  are  identified  by 
Professor  Maspero  with  "  Sweet  Marjorum,"  Purslane,  and  Mugwort,  all  sweet-smell- 
ing herbs.  In  adapting  my  translation  to  the  English  language,  I  have  ventured  to 
substitute  Henna,  one  of  the  Lythracea,  for  the  less  poetical  original. 

NOTE  59,  page  226. — We  may  even  know  how  the  words  of  this  song  actually 
sounded  in  the  mouths  of  the  men  who  sang  them  3540  years  ago.  °  The  old 
tongue  is  strange  enough  to  our  modern  ears,  but  thanks  to  its  close  relation  to  the 
Coptic,  and  to  the  researches  of  modern  Egyptologists,  we  are  enabled  to  call  back 
its  far-off  echoes. 

I-  2. 

HI  ten  enten,  Hi-ten  enten!   Hi-ten  enten  ! 

Hi-ten  enten,  Teheu  en  amu! 

Aha-u!   Aha-u  !  Shesu  en  Nebuten,  Shesu  en  Nebuten, 

Aha-u!  Aha-u! 

NOTE  60,  page  228. — See,  for  many  important  papers  on  the  religion  and  my- 
thology of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Professor  Maspero's  contributions  to  the  Revue 
de  V Histoire  des  Religions  during  the  past  ten  years. 

NOTE  61,  page  230.— See  Tyler's  Primitive  Culture,  the  chapter  on  Totemism. 

NOTE  62,  page  231. — Bulletin  de  la  Religion  d'Egypte  in  Revue  de  V Histoire  des 
Religions,  1st  year,  vol.  i.,  No.  1. 

NOTE  63,  page  236. — See  Herodotus,  Book  IV.,  chap,  cxxxi-cxxxii. 

NOTE  64,  page  241. — For  an  account  of  the  Horshesu,  see  chap,  ii.,  "  The  Buried 
Cities  of  Ancient  Egypt." 

NOTE  65,  page  254. — The  God  Khem,  also  by  some  Egyptologists  called  Min  and 
Am.  He  was  identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Pan,  and  by  the  Romans  with  Priapus. 

NOTE  66,  page  261. — That  Hatasu  was  not  their  only  daughter  is  shown  by  a 
funerary  bas-relief  sculpture  representing  Thothmes  I.  and  Ahmes-Nefertari  with 
their  daughter,  the  princess  Neferu  Kheb,  who  died  in  infancy.  Whether  Hatasu 
was  the  elder  or  the  second  daughter  we  do  not  know ;  but  in  either  case,  as  the 
survivor,  she  was  heiress  to  the  throne. 

NOTE  67,  page  262. — "  The  Black  Land  and  the  Red  Land  "  signifies  Lower  and 
Upper  Egypt;  the  Black  Land  being  the  dark  mud  of  Lower  Egypt,  and  the  Red 
Land  the  sandy  deserts  of  Upper  Egypt. 

NOTE  68,  page  263. — See  "Etudes  des  Monuments  du  Massif  de  Karnak,"  by  E. 
de  Rouge,  in  the  Melanges  d' Archeologie,  vol  i.,  page  50. 

NOTE  69,  page  264. — See  Le  Masee  Egt/ptien,  by  E.  Grebaut,  Part  I. ;  see  also  an 
article  by  G.  Maspero,  in  the  Revue  Critique,  No.  49,  December,  1890. 

NOTE  70,  page  264. — For  a  description  of  the  winding-sheet  of  Thothmes  III.,  see 
Les  Momies  Royales  de  De'ir-el-Bahari,  Part  I.,  p.  548. 

NOTE  71,  pnge  269. — Compare  various  translations  of  this  inscription  in  Records 
of  the  Past,  in  Cleopatra's  Needle,  by  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson,  and  in  The  Egypt  of  the 
Past,  by  the  same  author. 

NOTE  72,  page  272. — The  lofty  tower  which  is  yet  standing  of  this  ruined  convent 
has  been  the  temporary  abode  of  Lepsius,  Champollion,  Rosselini,  and  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson,  while  they  were  prosecuting  their  researches. 

NOTE  73,  page  272. — One  whole  sphinx,  and  part  of  another  are  in  Berlin. 

NOTE  74,  page  272. — See  De'ir-el-Bahan,  by  Auguste  Marietta,  folio,  1877. 

NOTE  75,  page  273. — In  1874  two  of  these"  prostrate  Hathor-head  capitals  were 
in  admirable  preservation,  the  hair  being  colored  yellow,  the  eye-halls  white,  with 
a  black  disk  for  the  iris;  and  the  necklace,  if  I  remember  rightly,  black,  green, 
and  red.  By  this  time,  probably,  they  are  scored  over  with  travellers'  names,  or 
chipped  to  pieces  by  relic-hunters. 

NOTE  76,  page  276. — See  De'ir-el-Baharl.  Mariette,  p.  81. 

NOTE  77,  page  280. — This  celebrated  subject  forms  one  of  the  great  historic 
series  relating  to  the  reign  of  Seti  I.  sculptured  in  bas-relief  on  the  north  outer 
wall  of  the  Hy  post  vie  Hall  at  Karnak.  The  canal  is  represented  by  two  vertical 
lines  enclosing  a  narrow  space  of  water,  conventionally  rendered  by  zigzags,  the 


308  PHARAOHS,  FELLAHS,  AND  EXPLORERS. 

banks  being  each  planted  with  a  row  of  trees.  The  only  bridge  known  to  be  rep- 
resented in  ancient  Egyptian  art  is  here  shown  as  crossing  the  canal  in  front  of  the 
fortified  gates  of  a  strong  frontier  fortress,  named  El  Khetam,  or  "  The  Key."  For 
an  exact  reproduction  of  this  important  sculpture,  see  Rosselini,  Monumenti  Storici. 
A  part  of  the  subject  is  also  given  in  Eber's  Egypt,  vol.  ii. 

NOTE  78,  page  282. — Dr.  Doenitz,  in  his  remarks  on  the  fishes,  contributed  to  Dr. 
Diimichen's  work,  Die  Flotte  einer  ^Egyptischen  Konigin,  writes  of  these  turtles 
as  tortoises,  and  classifies  the  crawfish  as  the  Palinums  penicillatus  of  the  Red  Sea. 
He  remarks,  however,  that  the  Egyptian  artist  has  here  and  there  mixed  up  the 
fishes  of  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  in  a  curiously  arbitrary  manner,  having  more 
than  once  introduced  the  sacred  oxyrhinchus  of  the  Nile  among  the  fishes  of  Punt. 

NOTE  79,  page  285. — The  speech  which  the  Egyptian  lapidary  scribe  has  here  put 
into  the  mouth  of  Parihu  gives  to  Hatasu  the  glory  of  being  the  first  ruler  of  Egypt 
whose  representatives  visited  the  Land  of  Punt;  the  tablet  of  Sankhara  (Eleventh 
Dynasty)  in  the  Wady  Maghara  refers,  however,  to  an  expedition,  despatched  by  this 
Pharaoh  to  the  Land  of  Punt  in  quest  of  the  "  green  ana."  The  tablet  states  that 
the  King's  explorers  started  from  Coptos  and  crossed  the  Arabian  desert  by  the  old 
trade  route  to  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea,  the  site,  no  doubt,  of  the  more  modern  city  of 
Berenice.  Here  they  built  and  launched  the  vessels  which  conveyed  them  to  the 
coast  of  the  Somali  country.  See  the  Wady  Maghara  Tablet  in  Lepsius'  Denkmaler. 

NOTE  80,  page  286. — The  Egyptians  entertained  an  extreme  reverence  in  the  ab- 
stract for  the  Land  of  Punt,  which  apparently  formed  part  of  a  larger  district 
known  generally  as  Ta-nuter,  or  the  Land  of  the  Gods.  Hathor  and  Bes,  two  of 
the  principal  deities  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians  had  their  divine  origin  in  Punt, 
and  Hathor  was  adored  under  a  special  form  as  "  The  Lady  of  Punt."  Bes,  in  his 
grotesque  features  and  general  characteristics,  is  clearly  a  barbaric  divinity,  and  is 
occasionally  represented  as  nursing  or  devouring  the  large  cynocephalus  apes  de- 
picted in  the  wall-sculptures  of  Dayr-el-Bahari  as  indigenous  to  the  Land  of  Punt. 
The  Egyptians  appear  to  have  cherished  a  vague  tradition  of  their  own  origin  as 
natives  of  Ta-nuter  at  some  extremely  remote  period ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  curved  beard  characteristic  of  these  natives  of  the  Land  of  the  Gods  is  a 
special  attribute  of  divinities  as  well  as  of  deified  personages  in  Egyptian  art. 

NOTE  81,  page  287. — An  inscription  at  Karnak,  which  gives  a  long  list  of  the 
booty  brought  to  Egypt  after  -a  victorious  campaign  of  Thothmes  III.,  especially 
mentions  a  certain  curious  bird  "which  delighted  the  heart  of  his  Majesty  more  than 
all  other  things."  The  architraves  of  this  Pharaoh's  Hall  of  Pillars,  also  at  Kar- 
nak, are  covered  with  elaborate  representations  of  foreign  flowers,  trees,  aud  plants 
brought  by  that  king  from  Syria  for  planting  out  in  the  great  botanic  garden  at- 
tached to  the  Temple  of  Amen  at  Thebes.  A  wood-cut  in  Maspero's  Egyptian  Ar- 
chaeology admirably  reproduces  some  of  these  very  curious  designs.  (See  English 
translation,  2d  edition,  p.  89,  fig.  100.) 

NOTE  82,  page  288. — See  Plinie's  Natural  Historie,  translated  by  Philemon  Hol- 
land, 1691,  Book  XII.,  chaps,  xv.  and  xvi. 

NOTK  83,  page  289. — See  Schweinfurth's  Heart  of  Africa,  vol.  i.,  p.  271. 

NOTE  84,  page  291. — See  Chabas,  Antiquites  Historiques,  chap.  iii. 

NOTE  85,  page  293. — The  Egyptian  word  Pera,  signifying  literally  "  Great  House," 
is  the  invariable  name  for  a  royal  palace.  It  is  also  used  as  a  synonym  for  the  King 
himself,  and  gives  us  the  origin  of  that  title  which  is  transliterated  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  by  "  Pharaoh."  This  employment  of  the  name  of  the  palace  as  a  synonym 
for  the  name  of  the  King  is  exactly  paralleled  at  the  present  day  by  our  own  use 
of  the  term  "  Sublime  Porte,"  or  "  Great  Gate-way  "  for  the  title  of  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey. 

NOTE  86,  page  295. — Urtheku,  or  "  Great  Charmer,"  is  a  Goddess  of  Magic  but 
rarely  met  with  in  the  inscriptions. 

NOTE  87,  page  296. — A  somewhat  similar  inscription  on  the  face  of  the  cliff 
above  the  entrance  to  the  celebrated  Speos  Artemidos  in  the  province  of  Minieh, 
which  is  in  part  effaced,  has  recently  been  copied  and  deciphered  by  M.  Goleni- 
scheff.  This  sanctuary  had  hitherto  been  attributed  to  Thothmes  III. ;  but  M.  Go- 


NOTES.  309 

lenischeff  has  discovered  that  the  royal  ovals  of  this  king  are  resculptured  over 
those  of  some  earlier  sovereign,  who,  to  judge  by  the  mention  of  Hathor  of  Punt, 
and  the  products  of  the  Land  of  Punt,  can  have  been  none  other  than  Hatasu. 
In  the  course  of  the  same  inscription  it  is  said  that  she  had  restored  the  temples 
of  the  Gods  in  various  parts  of  Egypt  where  they  had  been  ravaged  and  overthrown 
by  the  enemy,  whom  we  may  presume  to  have  been  the  Hyksos. 
NOTE  88,  page  297. — See  Rhind's  Thebes,  its  Tombs  and  their  Tenants. 


INDEX. 


AAHLU,    Fields    of,    idea,   borrowed    by 

Greeks,  186. 
Ab,  117. 

Abode  of  Turn,  48. 
Abraham,  38,  196. 
Abu-Simbel,  53,  79;  battle-piece,  with 

RamesesII.,  213-217;  portraits  at,  86, 

87. 
Abydos,  17. 

—  Great  Temple  of,  211. 

—  Lord  of,  120. 
Acliseans,  76,  160,  167,  191. 

—  first  appearance  of  the,  163. 

—  or  Akaiusha,  79. 

—  pictures  of,  163. 
Achilles,  163. 

jEgean,  Islands  of  the,  199. 

J5sop,indebtednessof,  to  Egypt  for  "Lion 
and  Mouse,"  etc. ;  Brugsch  and  Maspero 
on,  223. 

"Agib,  Prince,  and  Lodestone  Mountain," 
224. 

Ahmes  Nefertari,  Queen,  263,  264  ;  moth- 
er of  Hatasu,  261 ;  portrait  described, 
156. 

Aiuna  (the  lonians),  79. 

Akaiusha  (the  Achaeans),  79. 

Akerit  (the  Carians),  162. 

Alcacus,  23,  196. 

Aleppo,  204,206,208;  portrait  described, 
216,217. 

Alexander,  75,  114,  222;  Thothmes  III. 
the  Alexander  of  ancient  Egyptian  his- 
tory, 160. 

Alexandria,  6,  7,  26,  37,  40, 101,  179  ;  art 
at,  35. 

Algeria,  84,  199. 

Alphabet,  hieroglyphic,  given,  245. 

Am,  City  of,  18,  34. 

Amasis,  30,  61,  179,  180,  223. 

—  as  a  hero  of  fable,  225. 

—  II.,  28,  33,76,  88. 

—  last  of  the  Sai'te  kings,  165. 


Amasis,  Xaukratis  and  the  Greeks,  180, 

225. 
Amen,  102,  156,  206-208,  2C2,  270. 

—  address  of  the  Great  God,  160 ;  bri- 
gade of,  204,  216  ;    coming  to  aid  in 
battle ;  idea  borrowed  by  Greeks,  205. 

—  Great  God  of  Thebes,  date  of  existence, 
227. 

—  Great   Temple  of,  262, 267,  294,  296. 

—  High-Priest  of,  157. 

—  Lord  of  Thebes,  291. 

—  of  Thebes,  279. 

—  one  with  Ra,  231. 

—  oxen  sacrificed  to,  295. 

—  Sacred  Book  of,  292. 

—  speculations  about,  228. 
Amenemhat  I.,  52. 

—  II.,  18. 

Amenemhats,  dynasty  of,  168. 
Amenhotep  III.",  125,'  126, 128, 150. 
Amen-Knum  Hatasu,  300. 
Amen-Ra,  126,  199,269. 
American  Journal  of  Archeology,  170. 
Amorites,  205. 

—  frontier  of  the,  204. 
Amr,  41. 

Amu,  Land  of  the,  291. 

Amulets,  4. 

Anacreon,  194,  196. 

Ana  sycamore.     See  Nehet  Ana. 

Ani,  ape,  292. 

—  scribe,  maxims  quoted,  221. 
Ankh,  127,  128, 156. 

—  as  Father  of  Ma,  125. 

—  associated  with  Ka,  126. 

—  as  symbol  of  life,  12(>,  187. 

—  identified  with  Ka,  127, 128,  129. 

with  King,  128. 

An-Tursha,  77-79. 

Anubis,  187,228. 

—  speculations  about,  228. 
Apelles,  74,  75,  112. 
Apepi,  face  identified,  148. 


312 


INDEX. 


Aphrodite,  Temple  of,  at  Naukratis,  20, 

29,  35. 

Apis  (Ptah)  as  Greek  Serapis;  identified 
with  Zeus,  102. 

—  as  Soul  of  Osiris  and  Life  of  Turn,  231. 

—  speculations  about,  228. 
Apollo,  35. 

—  at  Naukratis,  191. 

—  at  Tenea,  190. 

—  at  Thera,190. 

—  Strangford,  the,  190. 

—  temple  to,  29. 
Apollodorus,  94,  97. 
Arabia,  146,  199,  288,  298. 

Arabs,  5,  6,  8,  11,  13.  14,39,41,64,68,69, 
84,  255,  276. 

—  at  tombs,  98,  142. 
Aradus,  203,  206. 
Arameans,  276. 
Archaeology  defined,  24. 

—  Egyptian,  period  of,  24. 

—  requirements  for  study  of,  24-26. 

—  school  of,  at  Athens,  29. 
Archipelago,  78. 

Ardagh,   Lieutenant-colonel,  survey    of, 

280. 

Argolis,  160,  161. 
Ari-n-Amen  (Arnmonarin),  102. 
Aristides,  75. 
Arsinoe,  City  of,  105. 
Art,  Alexandrian,  35. 

—  Assyrian.     See  Assyrian. 

—  decorative  designs.      See   Decorative 
designs. 

—  early  examples,  132. 

—  Egyptian.     See  Egyptians. 

—  Greek.     See  Greeks. 
Artemidorus,  96. 
Aryan  Hellenes,  168. 
Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford,  195. 
Asi,  120. 

Asia  Minor,  73,  202. 

light  on  history  of,  80. 

tribes  of,  80. 

Asiatic  Greeks,  73. 
Asiatics,  200. 

—  influence  of  the,  on  Egyptian  art,  133. 

—  types  of,  on  tombs,  82. 
Assuan,  53,  54,  176,256. 
Assyrians,  68,  69,  159. 

—  art  of  the,  74,  132. 

influenced  by  Egypt,  81. 

—  early  works  in  sculpture  of  the,  132. 

—  empire  of  the,  38. 

—  sculpture  of  the,  114. 

—  writing  of  the,  244. 

As-t  (Lady),  mother  of  Tliothmes  III., 
264. 


Astronomy,  217,218. 

Ateta,  King,  author  of  anatomy,  inventor 

of  hair- wash,  218. 
Athena,  90,  229. 
Athenacus,  29. 
Athens,  30,  37,  74,  75. 
Athribis,  City  of,  254. 
Ati  (wife  of  Prince  of  Punt),  284,  289. 

—  Chabas  on,  285. 

—  Maspero  and  Mariette  on,  as  type,  285. 
Atrnu  (Turn,  Tumu),  81. 

Augustus,  258. 

Australia,  aborigines  of,  230. 

Auvergne,  6. 

BA  (Egyptian,  soul),  117. 

—  Greek   misinterpretation   into   harpy, 
187, 188;  into  siren,  189. 

—  representation  and  office  of,  187,  188. 
Baal,  206,  208. 

Babylon,  61,  63. 
Babylonians,  62,  159. 

—  designs  borrowed,  171. 

—  inscriptions  of  the,  68. 

—  writing  of  the,  244. 
Bakakhiu,  57. 
Bak-en-Khonsu,  271. 
Balat  (brickwork),  68. 
Bechuanas  of  South  Africa,  230. 
Bedouin,  Mound  of  the  (Tell  Bedawi),  17. 
Benha  (site  of  Athribis),  254. 
Beni-Hasan,  168,  169,  172,  174,  191. 

—  columns  of,  180. 

—  decorative  designs  at,  170,  172. 
Berlin,  Museum  of,  190,  259. 
Bible,  the,  42,  50,  58,  63. 

—  its  account  of  Pharaoh's  house  veri- 
fied, 68. 

—  its  history  of  the  Hebrews  verified,  40. 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris,  195,  220. 
Birch,  Dr.,  4. 

Bitter  Lakes,  46. 
Bodleian  LibrarvT  23. 
Book,  of  the  Dead,  The,  14, 187, 196, 198, 
233,  249,  258. 

—  its  "Negative  Confession"  quoted,  232. 
British  Museum,  33,  92,  111,  155,  162, 

180,  189,  190,  212,  225,  298. 
Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  5. 
Brugsch,  Dr.,  46,  118,  197. 

—  finding  fable,  "Lion  and  Mouse,"  etc., 
223. 

—  on  Hatasu,  261. 

—  theory  about  Egyptian  religion,  228. 
Brune,  M.,  at  Karnak,  274  ;    restorations 

at  Dayr-el-Bahari,  272,  273. 
Bubastis  (modern  Zagazig),  6,  26,  45,  50, 
133,  146,  280. 


INDEX. 


313 


Bubastis,  Temple  of,  8,  148. 
Bulak,  27. 

—  "Wooden  Man  of,"  Ra-em-ka,  139 
140. 

Bull-clan  of  Memphis,  230. 
Burton,  Lieutenant,  survey  of,  280. 

—  Sir  Frederick,  158. 
on  panel  portraits,  106. 

CADMEAN  Greek  inscriptions,  77. 

Caesars,  14,  37,  114. 

Cairo,  6,  7,  16,  26,  39,  40,  116,  141,  168, 
176,  179,  256. 

Canaanite,  A,  82. 

Canal,  branch  of  Nile  existing  in  Nine- 
teenth Dynasty;  Author  believes  it  was 
built  by  Hatasu,  281. 

—  course  of,  described,  280. 

—  represented  as  Ta-Tena,  walls  of  Kar- 
nak  temple,  280,  281. 

Caria,  206. 
Carians,  58,  76,  167. 

—  as  the  Akerit,  162. 

—  troops  of  the,  66,  88,  164. 
Castellani,  Signor,  108. 

"  Castle  of  the  Jew's  Daughter,"  64,  68. 
Central  Africa,  285. 
Ceremonial  deposits,  31,  32. 

time  of  Philip  Arrhideus,  34. 

Cervetri,  92. 

Chabas,  on  Princess  Ati,  285. 

Chaldea,  271. 

—  art  of,  132. 
Chaldean  governor,  61. 
"Chant  of  Victory,"  198,  199. 

—  Mariette  on  the,  202. 

—  ranked  with  Pentaur  by  Brugsch,  202. 

—  recording  conquests  of  Thothmes  III., 
198. 

—  text  given,  199-202. 

—  where  found,  198. 
Charles  II.,  153. 
Chaucer,  114. 
Cheops,  71. 

Children  of  Israel,  80,  105,  191. 
Christianity,  introduction  of,  9. 
Cinderella,  Egyptian  origin  of  story,  223. 
Cinnamomifera  reffio,  sometimes  aroma- 

tifera  reffio,  276. 
Cinnyris  me(allica,  the,  281. 
Clans,  Bull,  Crocodile,  230. 
Cleopatra,  38,  39. 

Collignon's  Archeologie  Grecque,  87. 
Colossi  of  the  Plains,  53. 
Colossus  of  Rameses  II. ;  described,  53, 54. 
Combs,  4. 
Coptic  monasteries,  272. 

—  memoranda,  10. 


Coptic  monks,  9. 
Coptos,  276. 
Copts,  the,  5,  112. 
Corinthian  capitals,  186. 

compared  to  Egyptian,  174. 

Crocodile-clan,  Fayum,"  230. 
Cross-legged  scribe,  140,  143. 
Cuirasses,  Egyptian  Tarena,  163,  164. 
Curium,  26. 

Cyclopean  temples,  167. 
Cynoccphalus  Babuinus,  292. 

—  Hamadryas,  292. 

Cypriote  alphabet,  77,  78 ;  ancestry,  110; 
art,  35  ;  pottery,  77;  relics,  28  ;  schools 
in  decorative  designs,  183 ;  sculpture, 
early  examples  of,  132;  settlers,  167. 

Cyprus,  80,  186,  201. 

DAMIETTA,  7,  176. 

Danai,  or  Danasans  (descendants  of  Da- 
naos),  76,  77,  201. 

—  first    appearance     as    Greeks   under 
Thothmes  III.,  76,  160. 

—  history  of  name,  160,  161. 
Daphnse/50,  61,  62,  76,  90,  92,  180, 184 

187. 

—  colonization  of,  by  Greeks,  191. 

—  founded  by  Psammetichus  I.  for  Ca- 
rian  troops,  88. 

—  Greek,  Daphnjc  of  Pelusium  ;  Arab, 
Tell  Defenneh,  58. 

—  history  of,  58-63,  165,  166. 

—  identified  as  the  Biblical  Tahpanhes, 
58,  63,  165,  166. 

—  Jeremiah  quoted,  65-67. 

—  lotus  design  by  potters  of,  1 83. 

—  Petrie's  discoveries  at,  63-69. 
Dardanelles,  163. 

Dardani  (Dardanians),  163. 

—  as  Asiatic  Greeks  by  Thothmes  III.  and 
Homer,  78. 

Dardania,  208. 
Dardanians,  76,  163. 

—  history  and  laws  of,  3,  191. 

Darius  and  Scvthians,  Herodotus  on, 
235,  236. 

Dayr-el-Bahari — Arabic,  signifying  Con- 
vent of  the  North,  Coptic  moniiPterr, 
271,  272  ;  illustrations  from,  277,  293  ; 
Mariette  at,  296;  restorations  by  Brunt', 
272-274;  Temple  of  Karnak  at,  271, 
274,  275,  297. 

Deems,  258. 

Decorative  designs,  169-171. 

comparison  of  Greek  and  Egyp- 
tian, 170-172. 

—  Egyptian,  Egg -and -dart   pattern, 
184. 


INDEX. 


Decorative  designs,  Egyptian.  Goodyear 
on  (The  Grammar  of  the  Lotux),  172. 

Greek,  as  affected  by  lotus  (ex- 
amples), 181,  182. 

honeysuckle-pattern,  169;  first  ap- 
pearance of,  183. 

—  identity  of  Greek  with  Egyptian, 
173. 

—  key  pattern,  160,  170,  183. 

—  lotus  (see   flower   also),  172,  181, 
183;  discussed  and  described,  176, 179. 

Orchomenos,  172. 

palmette,  171,  172, 185  ;  the  royal, 

181. 

Petrie  on,  169. 

Petrie's  discoveries  at  Tell  Defen- 

neh,  182. 

Rhodian  type,  182,  183. 

rosette,  169,  171,  172. 

Schliemann  quoted,  "on  long  bud," 

172. 

—  spiral,  169,  172. 
Defenneh  vase,  184. 
Deir-el-Bahari,  Mariette  on,  287. 
De  Lesseps,  M.,  280. 

—  following  in  canal-course  of  Hatasu, 
281. 

Delos,  167,  174, 

Delta,  4,  6-8,  15,  16,  26,  31.  40,  41,  58, 
176,  185,  245,  252. 

—  Eastern,  57,  88. 

—  history  and  resources  of  the,  41,  42. 

—  marsh  canals,  18. 

—  Western,  166,  179. 
Demetrius,  96. 
Denderah,  11,  296. 
Dessuk   26. 
Diocletian,  57. 
Diogenes  (artist),  104. 

—  Flute  of  Arsinoe,  105. 
Dodecarchy,  the,  164. 

Doric  columns,  development  of  shaft  in 
Egypt,  191. 

—  Ferguson  quoted  on,  173,  174. 
Diirer,  Albert,  114. 

Dynasty  I.,  38,  218,  230,  237,  241. 

-  IF.,  186,  195,  237 ;  tablets  of,  at  Ox- 
ford, 135. 

-  III.,  135,  195. 

—  IV.,  116,  135,  136,  139,  177;  Tombs 
of,  195. 

—  V.,  116,  140,  177. 

—  VI.,  52,  116,  177,  195. 

-  XL,  52,  76,  159,  195,  227,  256,  258. 

—  XII.,  11,  18,  52,  77,  145,  148,  168, 
220,  222,  242,  257,  261  ;  date  of  found- 
ing, 168;  School  of  sculpture,  145. 

—  XIII.,  52,  146. 


Dynasty  XVII.,  146. 

—  XVIII.,  76,  77,  84,  92,  125,  129,  150, 
151,  256,  257,  261  ;  poetry  of,  226. 

—  XIX.,  8,  10,  52,  80, 151, 152,  155,  179, 
188,  230,  257,  283  ;  Pharaohs  of,  194  ; 
sepulchres  of,  82. 

—  XX.,  17,  53,  75,  77,  80,  82.  86,  151, 
182,  194,  230;  sepulchres  of,  82. 

—  XXI.,  157. 

—  XXII.,  43. 

—  XXIV.,  258. 

—  XXV.,  257,  258. 

—  XXVI.,  18,29,58,  130. 

—  XXX.,  44. 

EBERS,  DR.,26,  98, 178. 
Edfu,  39,  296  ;  Temple  of,  9. 
Egypt,  3-5,  10,  11,  15,  16,  20,  22,  23,  33, 
37,  42,  43,  62,  63,  67. 

—  ancient  names  of  Tamari,Nehi,etc.;  as 
Ta-meri,  Neri,  Khem  or  Khemit,  254. 

—  comparative  history  of,  37,  38. 

—  divisions  of,  40. 

—  historic  age  of  Horshesu,  241. 

—  history  as  a  nation,  38,  39,  63. 

—  topography  of,  39-41. 

—  under  Hatasu,  268. 

Egyptian  artists,  70-72,  100;  methods, 
73  ;  with  new  types,  86. 

—  Exploration  Fund,  15,  50,  57,  67,  218. 
history  and  place  of,  40. 

—  Hall  (Piccadilly),  106. 

—  manuscripts,  57. 

—  panel  portraits  with  process,  98-101. 

—  pigments,  etc.,  99. 
Egyptians,  14,  67,  96. 

—  art  of  the, compared  to  Greek,  Assyrian, 
etc.,  74. 

early  examples  of  the,  71,  132. 

effected  by  Hadrian,  97. 

emancipated  from  old  traditions, 

94. 

exponent  of  religious  beliefs,  134. 

influence  on  Greeks,  etc., 81, 87-91. 

influenced  by  Asiatics,  133. 

light  thrown  by  Greek  inscriptions 

on  the,  79. 

manner  and  methods,  71-73. 

painting,  75,  97. 

Petrie's  discoveries  of  the,  79. 

potters,  78. 

relation  to  Ka,  134. 

religious  origin  of  the,  discussed, 

115,  134. 
schools  classified — Memphite,Saite, 

etc.,  133,  134,  139-141.  • 
sculpturecomparedwiththeGreeks, 

134,  135. 


INDEX. 


315 


Egyptians,  art  of  the,  summary,  94. 

superiority  of  early  schools,  134. 

Theban  period,  81. 

—  belief  of  (parts  of  man,  destiny  after 
death),  186. 

—  character  of  the,  discussed,  222. 

—  early,  6,  194,  229. 

—  love  of  meditation,  195 ;  of  songs  and 
stories,  222. 

—  on  tombs,  82. 

—  types  of,  100. 
Eisenlohr,  Dr.  August,  218. 
El  Defenneh,  64-66. 
Elephant  River,  282. 
Elizabeth  (Queen),  261. 

—  Hatasu  as  the  Elizabeth  of  Egyptian 
history,  261. 

El  Kab/112,  226. 

El  Kasr  el  Bint  el  Yahudl  (the  "  Castle  of 

the  Jew's  Daughters  "),  64. 
Erastosthenes,  166. 
Erectheum,  186. 
Ero  Castra,  46. 
Etham,  46. 
Ethiopia,  73,  80. 
Ethiopians,  84,  154. 

—  on  tombs,  82. 

—  portraits  described,  85. 
Ethnological  Department,  South  Kensing- 
ton, 23. 

Etruscans,  78  ;  Egyptian  Tursha,  79,  92 ; 
Greek  Tyrrhenes  or  Turseni,  92. 

—  alphabet  of,  78,  79. 

—  art  of,  74,  80. 

affected  by  Greeks,  91 ;    by  Egyp- 
tians, 81. 

compared  to  Egyptian,  92. 

history  of,  91,  92,  163,  193. 

necklaces,  108. 

painting  on  tombs,  92,  93,  95. 

sculpture,  79. 

standards,  93,  94  ;  summary,  94. 

Eudoxus,  166. 

Euphrates,  1 99. 

Eusebius,  198. 

Exodus,  the,  8,41,42,45,79. 

—  later,  the,  62. 

—  route  identified,  46. 

Explorers,  requirements  for  and  trials  of, 
20-26. 

FAF.STAFF,  286. 

Fayiitn,  23,  77,  79,  94,  98,  99,  104,  147. 

—  described,  96. 

—  mummies  at,  96. 

—  panel- portraits  at,  102-104,  112. 

—  Petrie  at,  77. 

—  site  of  Labyrinth  at,  95,  96. 


Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  188. 

Fields  of  Aahlu,  186, 187. 

First  empire,  115. 

Food,  4. 

Fresh-water  Canal,  42. 

Funerary  tablets,  etc.,  4,  119,  120. 

GALKN,  218. 

Galerius  Maximian,  44. 

Gardner,  Ernest  A.,  19,  23,  29,  35,  36. 

Genesis,  46. 

Germanicus,  112. 

Gerome,  281. 

Geschichte  Aegyptens  nntcr  den  Pharao- 

nen,  197. 
Gezireh,  8. 
Glii/eh,  116. 

—  Great  Pyramid  of,  71,  131,  136,  227, 
237. 

—  museum  at,  136,  155,  264,  298. 

—  necropolis  of,  137. 

—  sphinx  of,  11,88. 

—  tombs  of,  156,  195. 
Gibraltar,  Strait  of,  279. 

Gliddon,  M.,  paraphrasing  poem,  226. 

Glyptotheca  of  Munich,  190,271. 

Gnostic  gems,  10. 

Gobryas,  236. 

Goodyear,  W.  H.,  170, 181. 

—  Egyptian  origin  of  Ionic  column,  170. 

—  Lotus,  origin  of,  172. 

Goshen  (modern  Saft  el-IIenneh),  58; 

identified  with  Kes,  58  ;  land  of,  58. 
Grseco-Asiatic  alphabet,  77. 
Grasco-Egyptian  panel-painting,  97. 
Graff,  Hei-r,  98. 

Grammar  of  the  Lotus,  The.     See  Lotus. 
Great  Oppression,  the,  58. 
Great  Pyramid,  71,  131,  136,  227,  237. 
Grebaut,  M.,  264. 
Greece,  97. 
Greeks,  the,  5,  9, 14,  96. 

—  alliance  with  Hittites,  162  ;  disappear- 
ance  under  Rameses  and  second  al- 
liance (first  chapter  European  history), 
162,  163. 

—  alphabet  of  the,  79,  80. 

—  architecture    of  the,  1 73  ;     columns 
compared  to  Egyptian,  173-175;  Fer- 
guson on,  174  ;  indebtedness  to  Egypt, 
186   (see   also    designs);    Ionic    dis- 
cussed,   176,    179,    180;     Perrot    on, 
175. 

—  nt  Daphmr,  165,  166. 

—  at  Naukratis,  165,  166,  181. 

—  early  colonies,  30,  7i>,  77. 

—  first  appearance  in  Egypt,  159. 

—  gems  of,  10. 


316 


INDEX. 


Greeks,  gentleman  and  lady  (costume), 
102,  103. 

—  in  Egypt  as  Danai  or  Danaea,  160, 161; 
as  the  Hanebu,  the  Hebrew  iye  hag- 
goiin,  159,  160. 

—  invasion    under    Psammetichus    and 
founding    of    Daphnae    of    Pelusiuin 
(Biblical  Tahpanhes),  164, 165. 

—  language  of,  199. 

—  manuscripts  of,  67. 

—  meeting  point  of,  63. 

—  of  Asia  Minor,  78. 

—  of  the  yEgean,  78,  193. 

—  of  the  Archipelago,  76. 

—  papyrus  of  (Ptolemaic  times),  196. 

—  Petrie  on  evidence,  78 

—  Petrie's  discoveries  as  evidence  in  art, 
79. 

—  prehistoric,  191. 

—  relics  of  (coins,  etc.),  22,  28,  30,  35,  65, 
66,  77. 

—  towns  of,  58,  61. 

—  transcriptions  of,  45. 

—  art  of  the,  36, 80. 

adaptation  and  alteration  of 

Sphinx,  90. 

ceramic  history  of,  30,  31,  36. 

compared  to  Egyptian,  75. 

decorative  designs :  affected  by  lo- 
tus, 181;  history  of,  31;  identity  with 
Egyptian  established,  173;  indebted- 
ness to  Egypt,  169-172, 181 ;  summary 
of  evidence,  185. 

early  specimens,  87,  89. 

evidence  quoted,  190. 

indebtedness  to  Egypt,  81,  88,  89, 

167,  189. 

painters  of  portraits,  41,  74,  75, 

100,  101. 

sculpture,  79,  132. 

summary,  94. 

work  of  Apollodorus, '94. 

Griffiths,  F.Llewellyn,  57. 

—  Mr.,    16,    22,    34;    explorations    de- 
scribed, 19,  20. 

HADRIAN,  97,  103,  112. 
Hair-pins,  4. 
Halicarnassus,  26. 
Hall  of  Columns,  199. 
Hanebn  (Egyptians  as  Greek  Hellenes), 
76.  161,  189. 

—  (Hebrew  ive  haggoim)  as  Greeks  in 
Egypt,  159-161. 

Harpakhrat,  18. 

Harpy,  Greek  misinterpretation  of  Ba, 
187-189. 

—  tomb  of,  at  British  Museum,  187,  188. 


Hatasu,  Queen,  125,  261. 

—  as  builder,  Temple  of  Karnak,  270. 

—  as  Pharaoh,  267. 

—  conjectures  of  Mariette  on,  150. 

—  daughters  of,  Hatasu  -  Meri,  Neferu- 
Ra,  and  marriage  of  one  daughter  with 
Thothmes  III.,  267. 

—  Egypt  under,  268. 

—  expedition  to  Land  of  Punt,  explana- 
tory  text     quoted,  and    speculations 
about   route,  276,  279,  280;    pictures 
of,  explained,  281,  296. 

—  fame  destroyed  by  Thothmes  III.,  297. 

—  history,  genealogy,  and  marriage  with 
Thothmes  II.,  263-268. 

—  identity  established,  262,  263; 

—  obelisks  of,  with  inscriptions  quoted, 
151,  268-270,  271. 

—  only  relics  of,  279,  298. 

—  portrait  described,  150,  151. 

—  "  Procession  of  the  Queen,"  293. 

—  Rouge',  Dr.,  on  262. 

—  royal  oval  of,  297,  299. 

—  scientific    ancestor,  De    Lesseps    as 
builder  of  the  great  canal,  281. 

—  ships  of,  276-278. 

—  Speos,  Artemidos,  296. 

—  statue  of,  273  ;  with  cow,  274. 

—  throne-chair,  298. 

—  tomb  of,  297. 

Hathor,  the  beautiful  goddess,  125,  126, 
224,  274,  296. 

—  as  Lady  of  Punt,  283,  294. 

—  Karnak  dedicated  to,  as  Lady  of  the 
West,  deity  of  Punt,  etc.,  275. 

Hawara,  graves  at,  23,  105. 

—  Petrie  and  panel-portraits  of,  102-1 12. 
Haworth,  Jesse,  298. 

—  relics,  22. 
Hebrew  settlers,  42. 

—  transcriptions,  45. 
Hebrews,  40,  42,  48,  58,  131. 

—  history  of  the,  63  ;  light  on,  40. 
Heidelberg,  218. 

Heliodorus,  28,  57. 

Heliopolis, Great  Temple  and  Sacred  Col- 
lege of,  198. 

Hellas,  30,  38,  75,  76,  168. 
Hellenic  tribes,  28. 
Hera,  29. 

Her-Hor,  High-Priest  of  Amen,  157. 
Hermonthis,  208. 
Herodotus,  8,  14,  29,  84,  166,  176. 

—  credulity  of,  222. 

—  on  Daphnse,  165. 

—  on  Naukratis,  179. 

—  on  Tel  Defenneh,  64. 

—  quoted  on  Labyrinth,  95. 


INDEX. 


317 


Herodotus,    story    of    Darius    and     the 
Scythians,  235. 

—  story  of  Rhodopis  and  the  sandal,  223. 
Heroopolis,  47. 

Herusha,  202. 

Hindoo  Kush,  259. 

History,  none  of  Egyptian,  Manetho  in 

Greek,  197,  198. 
Hittites,  188,208,216,217. 

—  against  Rameses,  205. 

—  allied  with  Lycians,  Mysians,  Carians, 
lonians,  and  Dardanians,  162,  163. 

—  battle-piece  of  Abu-Simbel,  214. 

—  leagued  with  Greeks  in  Egyptian  wars, 
162. 

—  war-chariots,  205. 
Homer,  23,  77, 191. 

—  Papyrus  found  under  a  woman's  head, 
now  in  British  Museum,  197. 

Homeric  vases,  87. 

Hophra,  refuge  of  daughters  of  Zedekiah 
in  Egypt,  165. 

—  service  of  gold,  67. 
Horace,  37,  194. 

Horemheb  (Pharaoh),  150, 152, 161, 189. 

—  inscription  on  Pylon,  286. 
Hor-pa-khroti    (Hor-the-child),  borrowed 

by  Greeks  as  Harpocrates,  186. 
Horshesu,  38. 
Horus,  90,  127,  128,  202,  252,  295. 

—  child  of,  80. 

—  followers  of,  38. 

—  Greeks  borrowed  as  God  of  Silence, 
182. 

—  the  Victor  "hut"  as  an  emblem,  127. 
Hotep-hers,  Lady,  137. 

Hottentot,  285.  " 

Houses,  decoration  of,  described,  7. 

Hui,  84, 112. 

Huts  of  mud  described,  8,  9. 

Hyksos  (Shepherd  Kings),  147-149 

—  invasion  of  the,  194. 

—  kings,  history  of  the,  146-150. 

—  race  of,  148. 

—  rule  of  the,  268. 

—  school  of  sculpture,  146  ;  finest  speci- 
mens of,  148. 

IBIS-CLAN,  Hermopolis,  230. 

Ibrem,  101. 

Iliad,  160,  191,202. 

—  buried  with  lady,  23. 

—  Second  Book  of  the,  23 ;  found  by  Pe- 
trie,  196. 

Ilion,  208. 

Images,  Greek  and  Egyptian,  10. 
Immortality  believed  by  Egyptians,  131. 
Indians,  Red,  picture-writing  of,  237,  238. 


Inscriptions  describing  Prince  of  Punt, 
291. 

—  early  examples  of,  77. 

—  of  Maskhutah,  42-44. 
lonians,  the  (Aiuna),  76,  79,  163. 

—  columns  of,  discussed,  179;   earliest 
examples  of,  180. 

—  decorative  designs  identified  with  lo- 
tus.    See  Decorative  Designs. 

—  of  Daphnae,  166. 

—  troops  of,  58,  66,  88, 164. 

—  volute,  185. 
Ireland,  Erin,  etc.,  254. 
Isarous,  Lady,  101,  102. 
Isi-ari-s  or  Ast-ari-s,  102. 
Isidora  (Isadore),  102. 
Isis  (Ision),  102. 
Ismailia,  41,46,280. 
Israel,  62. 

—  children  of,  48,  80,  105, 191. 

in  Egypt,  58. 

Israelites,  42,  48. 

Italy,  Alps  of,  77;  an  early  nation,  193; 
tribes  of,  79. 

JACOB,  41,  47. 
Jeremiah,  62,  67,  68,  165. 

—  prophecy  of,  quoted,  62,  63. 
Jerusalem,  61. 

Jewellers,  30. 

—  workshop  of  the,  30. 
Jewels,  4. 

Jewish  guests,  67. 

—  types,  105. 

Jews,  antiquities  of  the,  198. 
Johanan,  61,  62. 

Joppa,  taking  of,  like  Ali  Baba,  223. 
Joseph,  46,  47. 

—  oath  of,  131. 
Josephus,  50,  198. 

Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  92. 
Judah,  62,  63. 

—  royal  line  of,  68,  69. 
Julius  Cfesar,  112. 
Jupiter,  102. 

KA,  186,  187. 

—  and  the  "Ankh,"  126-130. 

—  as  life,  131,  232,  263;   summary  of 
argument  about  the,  130-132. 

—  as  Oath  of  Pharaoh — Joseph,  131. 

—  association  with  the  "Ankh,"  126-130. 

—  as  Suten-ka  (Ankh  Neb  Taui),  Life  of, 
Lord  of  Two  Lands,  Royal  Ku,  128. 

—  Brugsch,  definition  of  the,  118. 

—  chambers,  142. 

—  different  interpretations  of,  122. 

—  discussion  of  the,  117-119. 


318 


INDEX. 


Kn,  dogma  of  the,  128-134. 

—  fidelity  of  likeness  in  Ka  statues,  132, 
133. 

—  Greeks  and  the  Kha  and  Khai,  131. 

—  hieroglyphic  for  the,  118. 
—  Muspero  defines  the,  118. 

—  relation  to  portrait  statues  explained, 
122,  132. 

—  Renouf,  Le  Page,  defines,  118,  120. 

—  statues,  141. 

—  supplication  tablets,  etc.,  119,  121. 

—  theory  of  author  on  the,  123-130;  of 
Maspero,  122. 

—  relating  to  the,  124-130. 

—  Wiedemann  defines  the,  118. 
Kadesh,  162,  202-206. 
Kadeshites,  the,  208. 
Kafoo  (monkey),  292. 
Kahun  relics  described  by  Petrie,  243. 
Kalyub,  7. 
Kami,  Greek  kommi,  255. 

—  Latin  gummi,  256. 
Kareah,  61. 
Karkhemish,  202,  208. 

Karnak,  153,  163,  185,  199,  268,  270, 
296,  298. 

—  built  by  Hatasu,  270,  271. 

—  column  and  Temple  of  Thothmes  III., 
175,  179. 

—  dedicated    to    Amen,  Great    God    of 
Thebes,  and  to  Hathor,  Lady  of  Punt, 
275. 

—  Great  Temple  of,  28,  151,  154,  160, 
198,  212,261,268. 

—  pictures  and  sculptures  of  canal  and 
great  expedition  on  walls,  280-296. 

—  present  aspect  of,  272-274. 

—  pylon  of  Pharaoh  (Horemheb),  189. 

—  restored  by  Brune,  272. 

—  speculations  as  to  building,  274. 
Kati,  203. 

Ken-mi,  135. 

Kes,  58.    See  Goshen. 

Kha-em-uas,  Prince,  hero  of  fable,  son  of 
Rameses  II.,  225. 

Khafra,  11,  136. 

Khaibit,  117. 

Kha,  Khai,  131. 

Khamatic  family  of  languages,  including 
Syrians,  Ethiopians,  etc.,  259. 

Khem,  or  Khem-t,  Khemet,  Khemi,  an- 
cient hieroglyphic  name  of  Egypt,  254. 

—  god  of  productiveness,  254. 

—  survival  in  chemistry,  and  carried  by 
Arabians  to  Moors  and  Europe,  254, 
255. 

Khepersh,  war-helmets,  154,  267. 
Kheta,  or  Hittites,  203,  204,  208. 


Kheta,  prince  and  people  of  ;  princess  of, 
wife  of  Hameses  II.,  205,  211. 

—  soldiers  of,  213. 
Khonsu,  262. 
Khou,  117. 
Khufu,  11,  135,  136. 

—  "Ankh,"  83,  136.     See  Ka. 

—  king  of,  as  builder  of  Great  Pyramid 
and  hero  of  fable,  71,  225. 

—  priest  of,  131. 
King  of  Karagone,  281. 
Kings,  Pyramid,  11. 

—  Shepherd.     See  Shepherd  Kings. 
Kitchen  of  Pharaoh  at  Tell  Defenneh,  65, 

66. 
Knum,  speculations  about,  228. 

—  with  Ra,  231. 

Kols  of  Khota  Nagpar,  in  Asia,  230. 

LABYRINTH,  The,  at  Fayuin,  95,  96. 

—  destroyed  by  Romans,  95. 

—  Petrie  at,  and  portraits  from,  69. 

—  plateau  of,  98. 

Land  of  Canaan,  7,  40,  41,  42,  47,  203. 

—  of  Punt.     See  Punt. 
Language,  Grammar  of  the,  259. 

—  Semitic   and   Khamatic   one    source, 
259. 

—  theories  as  to  origin  of  the,  259. 
Latium,  78,  92,  100. 

Leather,  4. 

Leku  (Lycians),  79,  188. 

Lenorinant,  Frai^ois,  78,  79. 

Lepsius,  41,42,  46. 

Leyden,  259. 

Libyan  Range,  4. 

Libyans,  73,  77,  159. 

Life,  Egyptian  and  Greek  theory  of,  131. 

Linen,  4. 

"  Lion  and  the  Mouse."    See  ^Esop. 

—  Brugsch  on,  223. 

Literature,  Egyptians  first  in  field  of,  195. 

—  "Chant  of' Victory,"  199. 

—  "Cinderella"  borrowed  from,  223. 

—  comments  on  growth  of,  191-193. 

—  compared  to  Greek,  196. 

—  difference  between  writing  and,  195. 

—  Ebers's  discoveries,  219. 

—  fables  borrowed  from,  223.  See  JSsop. 

—  indebtedness  of  ^Esop  to,  223. 

—  inscriptions   of  4200  B.  c.  on    stone, 
195. 

— London,  in,  259. 

—  love  songs  and  romances,  222  ;  "The 
Doomed  Prince,"  224;  "Tale  of  Two 
P.rothers;"  "Taking  of  Joppa;"  "Ship- 
wrecked   Mariner,"   all    borrowed    by 
Greeks,  222-224. 


INDEX. 


319 


Literature,  mathematical  papyri  found  at 
Tanis  and  Thebes,  218. 

—  medical  books,  218. 

—  moral  philosophy,  219;  maxims  quoted, 
220. 

—  necessity  for  convenient  writing  ma- 
terial, 194. 

—  no  history  (Manetho's  in  Greek),  198. 

—  Papyrus  of  Homer,  where  found,  197. 

—  Pentaur,  poem  of,  205. 

—  Petrie's  discoveries,  196. 

—  poetry  —  examples    quoted:     Prisse 
Papyrus  (oldest  book  in  the  world), 
195. 

—  scientific,  remarks  on,  217;  astronomi- 
cal, 217,  218. 

—  subjects  always  historical  and  relig- 
ious, 197. 

Lord  of  Abydos,  120. 
Lotus:  as  a  flower,  176,  177. 

—  as  designs  affecting  Greek  decorative 
art,  with  examples,  181-183, 186. 

—  Defenneh  vases,  184. 

—  first  appearance  in  architecture,  184. 

—  Grammar  of  the  Lot-its,  The,  172. 

—  Marquand,  Prof.  Alan,  on,  186. 

—  Petrie's  discoveries,  179. 
Louis  XIV,  153. 

Louvre,  Museum  of  the,  57,  190;   Egyp- 
tian Department  of  the,  218. 
Lower  Egypt,  4,  14. 
Lucius  Verus,  112. 
Luxor,  Great  Temple  of,  211. 
Lybia,  163,  199,  201. 
Lybians,  163,  188. 

—  on  tombs,  82. 

—  types  described,  83,  84. 
Lycia,  76,  77,  188,  206,  208. 

Lycians  (the  Leku),  79,  92,  162,  163, 167 

'first  alliance,  163  ;  amnesty,  211. 
Lydia,  203. 

MA.  125. 

—  Goddess  of  Justice,  263. 
Macedonian  rule,  101. 
Makara,  262. 

Man,  definition  of,  234. 
Manetho,  High  -Priest  of  Ra,  wrote  his 
tory  of  Egypt  in  Greek,  11,  197,  198. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  112. 
Mariette,  4,  26,  116. 

—  at  Meydum,  142. 

. —  at  tomb  of  Nefert,  142. 

—  conjectures  about  Hatasu,  150. 

—  excavations  at  Dayr-el-Bahari,  296. 

—  on  "  Chant  of  Victory,"  202. 

—  on  Land  of  Punt,  276. 

—  on  sycamore,  287. 


lark  Antony,  39. 
larquand,  Prof.  Alan,  186. 
Martial,  194. 
lashuasha,  84. 
Maskhutah,  Tell-el-,  42. 
—  described,  48. 
Masonic  deposits,  18;  at  Tell  Xebesheh, 

33  ;  where  found,  32.  See  Petrie. 
Maspero,  Professor,  4,  69, 1 16,  1 1 8  ;  find- 
ing fable  of  "Stomach  and  Members," 
223;  identifying  Land  of  Punt,  276; 
on  the  Ka,  122;  speculations  about  ca- 
nal, 282. 

klaten,  located,  201. 
Maut,  120, 127, 162. 
tfautemhatmest,  120. 
tfautemua  (Queen-mother),  125. 
tfautnefer,  Queen,  wife  of  Thothmes  I., 

mother  of  Thothmes  II.,  264. 
Maxims  on  demotic  papyrus  (Lowe),  221 ; 
of  Ptah-hotep  in  Prisse  Papyrus,  220 ; 
of  Scribe  Ani,  quoted,  220,  221. 
Maxyans,  84. 

Medes,  writing  of  the,  244. 
Medinet-Habu,  86,  87, 133. 

—  temple  of,  156. 
Medit,  16. 
Mediterranean,  8,  77. 

Memphis,  4,  17,  37,  58,  61,  133,  164,  165, 
219,223,256. 

—  medical  library,  218. 

—  mounds  of,  6,  11. 

—  school  of,  typical  series,  138. 
Memphite  school,  145. 

—  compared  to  Florentine,  145. 

—  compared  to  Greek,  143. 

—  school  of  sculpture,  133, 134,  141  ;  its 
character  drawn,  141. 

—  school  summarized,  143-145. 

—  statues  as  bodies  for  Ka,  134. 
Memphites,  the,  148. 

Mena,  Prince  of  Thebes,  24,  38,  230,  241. 

—  history  begins  with,  240. 
Meneptah  (Pharaoh  of  Exodus),  162,  167, 

173,  188. 
Menthu,  208. 
Menzaleh,  Lake,  58,  63. 
Mertetefs,  Queen,  125,  135-137. 
Mesopotamia,  140,  199,  200,  259. 
Mexico,  picture-writing,  249. 

—  described,  237,  238.' 
Meydum,  116,  142. 
Michael  Angelo,  114. 
Middle  Egypt,  4,  40. 
Migdol,  48. 
Milesians,  29. 

—  at  Naukratis,  166. 

—  colonists,  28,  36. 


320 


INDEX. 


Models,  ceremonial  and  industrial,  buried 

at  Naukratis,  32,  83. 
Mohammedan  invader,  30. 
Monasteries,  Coptic,  272. 
Mongolian  types,  11,  148. 
Mosaic  books,  1(50. 
Mo?es,  38. 
Mounds,  11,12. 

—  contents  of,  described,  4,  6, 17, 18. 

—  estimates  of,  5. 

—  excavating  of,  described,  10-14. 

—  growth  of,  and  geological  strata,  7-9. 

—  of  Bedouins,  17. 

—  of  Bubastis,  6. 

—  of  Lower  Egypt,  40. 

—  of  Maskhutali,  48-50. 

—  of  Memphis,  6. 

—  of  Nebireh  (city  of  Naukratis),  26. 

—  of  Tanis,  6. 

—  of  Tell  Defenneh,  63. 

—  of  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  18. 

—  of  Wady  Turn  i  1  at,  4 1 . 

—  situations  of,  15,  16. 

—  with  temples,  11. 
Mozambique  Channel,  279. 
Mummies,  4. 

—  at  Fayum  Labyrinth,  96,  98. 

—  bandages  of,  11. 

—  of  Roman  and  Pharaonic  period,  108. 

—  statistics  about,  5. 
Museum:  Athens,  190. 

—  Bernli,  190,  259. 

—  BibliothequeNationale,  Paris,  195,220. 

—  Ghizeh,  136,  155,  264,  298. 

—  Glyptotheca  of  Munich,  190,  271. 

—  Hague,  the,  298. 

—  Leyden,  125. 

—  Louvre,  the,  102, 141,  212. 

—  Naples,  121. 

—  Oxford,  195. 

—  Paris,  259. 

—  South  Kensington,  197. 

—  Vienna,  259. 
Mycena?,  168,  169,  111. 
Mvcians,  the,  76. 
Mysia,  206,  208. 

—  tribes  of,  203. 
Mysians,  the  "Masu,"  162. 

NAPOLEON  THE  FIRST,  281. 
Napu,  119,  121. 

—  funerary  tablets  of,  120. 

National  Egyptian  Museum  (Ghizeh),  69, 

115,  116. 
Naukratis,  20,  23,  30-35,  36,  50,  57,  58, 

61,  76,  92,  165,  181,  184,  185,  223. 

—  colonized  by  Greeks,  191. 

—  description  of,  26-31. 


Naukratis,  fragments  at,  36. 

—  Herodotus  on,  179. 

—  history  of,  28,  180. 

—  locality  of,  26. 

—  mounds  of,  26,  28. 

—  plate  described,  90,  91. 

—  pottery  of,  31. 

—  sculpture  found  at,  34. 

—  Sheikh  of,  16. 

Naville  M.,  4,  22,  34,  41,  42,  46,  48,  57. 

—  discoveries  in  Saft-el-Henneh,  57. 

—  discovery  of  Hyksos  portraits,  148. 
Jewish  cemetery,  50. 

Nebireh,  26,  28.    See'uty  of  Naukratis. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  61-63/68,  69. 
Necropolis,  2,  3,  7. 
Nectanebo  I.,  44. 

—  II.  (monolithic  shrine  of),  57. 
Nefert,  statue  of,  described,  142. 

—  Princess,  portraits  of,  described,  137- 
139. 

Nehet  Ana  (sycamore  of  Ana),  287,  288, 
292-295. 

—  as  gifts,  288-291. 

—  Mariette  on,  287. 

—  Pliny  quoted  on,  287,  288. 
Nehi  (ancient  Egypt),  254. 
Neko,  65. 

Nelumbium  speciosa  (rose  lotus),  176. 

Nemhotep,  132,  133. 

Nenuphar,  176.    See  white  and  blue  lotus. 

New  Testament,  10. 

Newton,  Sir  Charles,  paraphrase  quoted, 

143. 

Nikias,  74. 
Nile,  5,  7,  16,  37,  39,  70,  164,  176,  269, 

280,  296. 

—  branch  of  canalized  in  Nineteenth  Dy- 
nasty, 280. 

Nile  Valley,  3,  4,  9,  11,  31,  71,  101,  197, 
218,  229,  241. 

—  relics  of  the,  80. 

—  stone  age  of  the,  24. 
Nilus,  126. 

Nineveh,  26. 

"  Nomes  "  (provinces),  38. 
Notem-Maut,  Queen,  157. 
Nubia,  11,40,  112,200,256 

—  types  of,  100. 
Nubian  corps,  293. 

—  fashions  in  hair,  84. 

OBELISK,  8. 

—  at  Rome,  270. 

—  in  Central  Park,  53. 

—  of  Tanis,  54. 

—  on  Thames  Embankment,  53. 
Odysseus  and  the  Sirens,  189. 


INDEX. 


321 


(Edipus  of  the  Daphnae,  92. 

—  and  the  Sphinx,  89. 
Olympiad,  the,  79,  159. 
Olympus,  205. 

Onias,  50. 

Orchomenos   treasury   and  ceiling,  168, 

170-172,  185,  191 ;  decorative  designs, 

172. 

Orontes,  162. 
Oscano,  the,  193. 
Osiris,  119,  120,  186,  219,  232. 
Osorkon  II.,  43,  52,  53. 
Ovals,  royal,  of  Hatasu,  297,  299. 

PA-BAST,  defined,  45. 

Pahiri,  at  El-Kab,  songs  in  stone,  226. 

Palestine,  112. 

Palmetto,  Oriental,  181. 

Pames  Isis,  44. 

Pandarus,  188. 

Panel-portraits,  97-111. 

comments 'on,  112. 

Egyptian  lady,  104. 

speculations  about,  108,  111,  112. 

Pan-Hellenian,  29,  31. 

Papyrus :  first  knowledge  of  use  of,  195. 

—  found  by  Petrie,  Twelfth  Dynasty,  196. 

—  Great  Harris,  creation  of  Ptah,  218. 

—  Greek  and  Roman,  10. 

—  necessity  for,  194. 

—  oldest  papyrus  (Prisse),  195. 
Parihu,  the  Great,  of  Punt,  283,  289. 
Pa-Turn,  44. 

—  meaning  of,  defined,  45. 

—  of  Sukut,  46. 
Pausanias,  74. 
Payni  month,  212. 
Pedasos,  203. 

Pelasgi,  the,  171 ;  speculations  as  to  ori- 
gin of,  84,  168. 
Pelasgic  Greeks,  76. 
Peloponnesus,  163. 
Pelusiac,  bank  of  the  Nile,  58. 
Pelusium,  63,  77. 
Pentaur:  edition  in  papyrus,  212. 

—  Epic  of  (The  Great  Iliad),  with  contents 
described,  173,  202. 

—  Greek  and  Hittite  invasion,  162. 

—  identity  of  man,  212. 

—  poem  quoted,  205,  210. 

—  where  found,  212. 
Pepi  Merira,  52. 

—  Pepi-Xa,  funerary  tablet  of,  119-121. 
—  Pyramid,  11,  227. 

Pericles,  37,  174. 

Perrot  on  Corinthian  architecture,  175. 
Persepolis,  sculptures  of,  114. 
Persians,  the,  14,  236. 
21 


Persians,  the,  as  invaders,  39. 

—  tablets  of,  10. 

—  writing  of,  244. 

Petrie,  M.,  16,  17,  22,  29,  30,  32   53   64 
66-68. 

—  at  Daphnae,  166,  184. 

—  at  Fayum,  with  value  of  discoveries, 
77,  79,  80. 

—  at  Lake  Menzaleh,  58. 

—  at  Naukratis,  26,  166,  179-181. 

—  at  Tanis  (Zoan),  51,  57. 

—  at  Tell  Defenneh,  63,  64. 

—  at  Tell  Nebireh,  80,  179. 

—  contradicting  Herodotus,  165. 

—  dates  of  Temple  of  Apollo,  184. 

—  discoveries  of,  50  ;  of  Greek  alphabet 
signs,  79. 

—  explorations  and  excavations  described, 
19,  166. 

—  finding  Lady  of  Iliad,  23. 

—  Masonic  deposits,  32,  33. 

—  on  designs,  lotus,  etc.,  169,  182,  183. 

—  on  standards,  in  relation  to  false  doors 
and  Ka,  123, 124. 

—  panel  portraits  and  pictures  on  tombs, 
82,84,88,90,96,98,  111,  112. 

—  papyrus,  mathematical,  218;  Twelfth 
Dynasty  at  Fayum,  196. 

—  Rameses  II.  colossus,  63. 

—  relics  of  Kahun,  243. 
Pharaoh  III.,  18. 

—  Hophra,  68. 

—  Usertesen  II.,  73,  78. 

Pharaohs,  the,  4,  38,48,  76,  80,  114,  131, 
157,  167,258. 

—  costumes  of,  294. 

—  crown  and  sceptre  of,  90.  248. 

—  days  of,  4,  153. 

—  house  of,  in  Tahpanlies,  19,  63,  67,  68. 

—  kitchen  at  Tell  Defenneh,  66. 

—  land  of,  84. 

—  last  of,  57. 

—  of  Twelfth  Dynasty,  145,  168;  dates 
given,  169. 

—  of  Twentieth  Dynasty,  152,  194. 

—  prisoners  of,  80. 

—  three  names  of  each,  123. 

—  verifying  Bible  accounts  of,  68. 
Pharaonic  canal,  48,  50. 
Phidias.  143. 

Philadelphia,  44. 

Philip  Arrhideus,  ceremonial  deposits  of 
the  time  of,  34. 

—  of  Macedon,  174. 
Phoenicia,  201. 
Phoenicians,  the,  159,  171,  276. 

—  alphabet  of,  78. 

—  sculpture  of,  77, 132. 


322 


INDEX. 


Piccadilly,  106. 

Pierret,  theory  about  religion,  228. 

Pigments  in  panel-portraits,  99. 

Pihaiiiroth,  46,  48. 

Pikeheret,  48. 

Pindar,  196. 

Pithoni  (treasure-city),  41,  42,  45,  48. 

—  bricks  of,  49. 

—  identified  with  Bible  account,  50. 

—  of  Succoth,  46. 
Plato,  14,  37,  71,  166. 
Pliny,  74,  77,  79. 

—  historical  views  justified,  76,  77. 

—  on  art  of  Greeks,  97:  of  Egyptians,  75. 

—  on  Sycamore  Ana,  287,  288. 

—  reasons  for  prejudice,  77. 
Polygnotus,  74,91. 

Portrait  sculpture,  at  Fayum,  98,  99. 

oldest  examples  of,  135. 

Potters,  31. 

—  factory  at  Naukratis,  30. 
Praxiteles,  143. 

Prince  of  Punt.     See  Punt,  Prince  of. 
Prisse  Papyrus  (oldest  book  in  the  world), 

220. 

Prometheus,  131. 
Protogenes,  74. 
Proto-Homeric  vases,  75 
Psammetichus  I.,  61,  64-66,  76,  88. 

—  dynasty  of,  119,  130. 

—  founder  of  Daphnae  of  Pelusium  (Bib- 
lical Tahpanhes),  164,  165,  180. 

—  founder  of  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty, 
164. 

—  palace-fort  of,  182. 
Ptah,  218. 

—  brigade  of,  204,  205. 

—  the  Memphis,    the  Ra  of  Heliopolis, 
231. 

Ptah-hotep,  221. 

—  maxims  of,  220. 
Ptolemaic  Greeks,  96. 
Ptolemies,  the,  9,  10,  14,  46,  223. 

—  time  of,  161. 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  74. 

-  Philadelphia,  32,  33,47,  50, 198. 
Punt,  as  Parihu,  823. 

—  Land  of,  276,  279,  300. 

—  later  prince  of,  286. 

—  located,  201 ;  by  Maspero  and  Mari- 
ette  as  Somali,  276. 

—  presents  to  Hatasu,  291. 

—  Prince  of,  277,  287. 

—  tableau  of  expedition  described,  281- 
296. 

—  wife  of,  284. 

Pyramid  Kings,  the,  11,  116,  132,  227. 

—  Period,  118,  166,  218. 


Pyramids,  the,  38,  76,  218. 
Pythagoras,  166. 

RA,  123,  126,  131,  212,  219,  251,  262, 
269. 

—  as  Amen-Ra,  Knum-Ra,  Sebek-Ra,  the 
Great  All,  231. 

—  brigade  of,  204,  205. 

—  speculations  about,  228. 

—  worship  of,  231. 
Raamses  (treasure-city),  41,  45. 
Ra-em-ka,  "Wooden  Man  of  Bulak  ;"  por- 
trait described,  83, 139, 140. 

Ra-hotep,  General,  137,  142. 

—  portraits  described,  83,  139,  142. 
Ra-ma-ka  (throne-name),  300. 
Ra-men-Kheper,  200. 

Rameses  I.,  18,  151. 

—  history  of,  11,51,  52. 

—  II.,  The  Great,  10,  13,  18,  38,  43,44, 
52,  79,  80,  86,  87,  152,  155,  163,  188, 
204,  205,  225. 

—  as  hero  of  Pentaur,  202-205  ;  Pentaur 
quoted,  205-210. 

—  as  Pharaoh  of  the  Great  Oppression, 
162. 

—  at  Tanis,  52. 

—  exploits  given  in  battle  -  piece,  Abu- 
Sim  bel,  213-217. 

—  portraits  and  statues,  53,  153,  154. 
-  Temple  of,  57. 

—  where  buried,  155. 

—  wooden  mask  of,  157. 

—  III.,  75,  77,  80,  86,  173,  300. 

—  and  the  Greeks,  162. 

—  history   of,  and   Twentieth   Dvnasty, 
155. 

—  tomb  of,  82. 

—  Mer-Amen,  212. 

—  of  Tanis  (colossus),  53,  54. 
Ramesseum  at  Thebes,  53,  211,  217,  264, 

271. 

Ram?es,  42. 

Ras-el-Fil,  282. 

Red  Sea,  the,  48,  280,  282. 

Religion  (Egyptian),  first  to  recognize  im- 
mortality, "231. 

—  idea  of  the  Ka,  232. 

—  identity  of  Rah,  Ptah,  Amen,  231. 

—  in  relation  to  sculpture,  117. 

—  of  man  divided  the  body  into  Khat, 
Ba,  Khon,  Kha'ibit,  Ren,  Ka,  Ab,  Sahu, 
117. 

—  microcosm  of  man,  232. 

—  morality,  standard  of,  233. 

—  polytheism  and  monotheism,  with  spec- 
ulations about  Ra,  etc.,  228,  281. 

—  Ra  as  Great  All,  231. 


INDEX. 


323 


Religion  (Egyptian),  theories  of  Brugsch 

and  Pierret,  228. 
the  author  on,  227,  229-231. 

—  Totemism,  228,  230,  231. 

—  unsettled  present  knowledge  of,  227. 
Ren,  117. 

Renouf,  Le  Page,  118. 

—  on  Egyptian  verbs,  260. 

—  on  the  Ka,  129. 

Revillout,  Prof.  Eugene,  57,  218,  227. 
Rliind,  tomb  of  Hatasu,  297. 
Rhodes,  186. 
Rhodiau  school,  Greek  only  in  Greek  art, 

183. 

Rhodopis,  223. 
Romans,  the,  5,  14,  44,  96,  107. 

—  coins  of,  10. 

—  growth  of  period,  9. 

—  language  of,  199. 

—  rule  of,  46. 
Rome,  8,  37. 
Rosetta,  176. 
Rotennu,  201. 

Rouge,  Vicomte  de,  261. 
Rubaiyat,  98. 

SABKANS,  288. 

Sufekh,  126. 

Saft  el-Henneli,  57,  58. 

Sahu,  117. 

Sailors,  Egyptian,  290. 

Sais,  26,  58,  164. 

Saite  Kings,  165;  Period,  10,119. 

Sakkarah,  78,  116. 

Salatis,  147. 

Salhadscher,  20. 

Sallier  Papyrus,  149. 

Sandals,  4. 

San,  description  of,  50. 

San-el-Hagar,  61. 

Sankhara,  King,  76,  159. 

Santorin,  ancient  cemetery  of,  79. 

Sappho,  23,  194,  196. 

Sara  pis  (wrong  for  Serapis),  102. 

Sardinia,  under  foreign  rule,  86. 

Sardinians,  77. 

—  chieftains  of  the,  86. 

—  first  alliance  of  the,  163. 
Sayce,  Professor,  171. 
Scandinavia,  239. 
Scarabs,  11,  166. 

—  described,  30. 

—  makers  of,  30. 
Scherschell,  199. 

Schliemann,  Dr.,  on  decorative  designs, 

170,  171. 

Schweinfurth,  Heart  of  Africa,  289. 
• —  on  Bongo  women,  285. 


Sculpture,    Egyptian,    compared      with 
Greek,  134,  135. 

—  Hyksos  school  of,  146. 

—  Middle  Empire  school  of,  145. 

—  of  Prince  of  Punt  expedition,  281-296 

—  relation  to  the  Ka  of  sculpture  por- 
traits, 134. 

—  religious  origin  of  portraits,  115. 

—  Theban  school  of,  151. 

—  wooden  portrait-masks,  156. 
Scythias,  147. 

Sebek,  with  Ra,  231. 
Semites,  the,  87. 

—  types  of,  100,  152. 
Semnefer,  83,  137. 
Seneca,  112. 

Seneferu,  last  king  of  Third  Dynasty,  138. 

Sen-Maut,  architect,  Dayr-el-Bahari,  271. 

Septuagint,  46,  47. 

Sepulchres,  Twentieth  Dynasty,  82. 

Set,  202. 

Seti  I.  (father  of  Rameses  II.),  77-79, 

126,152,  157,280,281. 
Seti  II.,  18 ;  portrait  described,  154,  155. 
Set-nekht  (Rameses  I.),  18. 
Severus,  44. 
Shabtun,  203,  205. 
Shakespeare,  114,  234. 
Shaluf,  46. 
Shepherd  Kings  (Hyksos),  11. 

—  history  of  the,  146. 
Sheshonk  I.,  43 ;  Slieshonk,  52. 

"  Shipwrecked  Mariner"  likened  to  "Sind- 

bad  the  Sailor,"  225. 
Shishak,  43. 
Sicilians,  the,  77. 

—  first  alliance  of,  163. 
Sinai,  199,268. 

"  Sindbad  the  Sailor,"  225. 

Siptah,  155. 

Siren  (Greek  misunderstanding  of  Ba), 

189.' 
Suit,  11. 

Smith,  Cecil,  107. 
Solon,  166. 
Somali,  255. 

Soudan,  the,  85,  255,  256. 
Spaight,  Major  (survey  of),  280. 
Speke,  description  of,  wife  of  Karagon6, 

285. 

Speos  Artemidos,  296,  297. 
Sphinx,  the,  at  Gliizeh,  11,  38,  89,  239. 

—  headless,  18. 

—  type  described,  and  Greek  alteration 
of,  90. 

St.  Albans,  44. 

Standards,   military,  Egyptian,    Roman, 
etc.,  93,  94. 


INDEX. 


Statues,  8. 

"  Stomach  and  Members  "  (.<Esop),  Mas- 

pero  on,  223. 
St.  Peter's,  8. 
Strabo,  71. 

Stratford-on-Avon,  114. 
Stuffs,  4. 

Suez.  Gulf  of,  16,  280. 
Sukut,  44,  46. 
Susa,  sculptures  of,  114. 
Sutekh,  204,  208. 

—  brigades  of,  205. 
Sweetwater  Canal,  48,  280. 
Syene,  101. 

Syria,  60,  62,  80,  199,  200,  202. 

—  provinces  of,  162. 
Syrians,  tlie,  73,  96,  204,  217. 

—  chiefs,  204. 

—  costumes  of,  83. 

—  medical  lore  of,  219. 

TA-AN  (Tsan).     See  Tunis. 

Ta.-a.rt  (gift  of  Isis),  Isidora,  102. 

Talia  (Gaza),  location  of,  200. 

Tahpanhes  identified, 58, 63.  See  Dapbnae 
and  Defenneh. 

Tabuti  (general  to  Thotbmes  III.),  223. 

Taking  of  Joppa.     See  Joppa. 

"Tale  of  Two  Brothers,"  the  foundation 
of  "Cinderella,"  155,223. 

Ta-meri  (ancient  name  of  Egypt),  254. 

Tanis  (Ta-an  or  Tsan,  Hebrew  Zoan,  mod- 
ern San),  Great  Temple  of,  146. 

—  history,  site,  remains,  etc.,  20,  50-57, 
133,153. 

—  mathematical  papyrus  at,  218. 

—  mounds  of,  6. 

—  sphinx  at,  149. 

Tanuter,  Land  of  the  Gods,  285,  291. 

—  location  of,  201. 

Tarena,  Egyptian  for  cuirasses,  153,  164. 
Ta-Tena,  280.     See  Canal  also. 
Teans,  29. 

Tell  Abu  Suleiman,  42. 
Tell  Bedawi,  17. 

Tell  Defenneh  (ancient  Daphnac),  18,  58, 
68,  182. 

—  as  a  meeting-point  in  history,  63. 
—  Petrie  at,  58,  63,  64. 

Tell  el  Amarna,  22. 

Tell  el  Barud,  26. 

Tell  el-Maskhutah  (site,  relics,  etc.), 42, 43. 

Tell  el-Yahudieh,  80. 

Tell  Farun,  17. 

Tell  Gemayemi,  34. 

Tell  Gurob,  77,  78,  167. 

Tell  Kahun,  77. 

Tell  Xebireh  (Arab,  Naukratis),  179 


Tell  Qnarmus,  34. 

Temple  of  Abu-Simbel  (Xubia),  211. 

—  Cyclopean,  167. 

—  of  Abydos,  8,  211. 

—  of  Amen,  263,  267,  294,  296. 

—  of  Aphrodite,  22. 

—  of  Apollo,  179,  180, 184, 199. 

—  of  Bubastis,  8, 

—  of  Dayr-el-Bahari,  268. 

—  of  Derr  (Xubia),  212. 

—  of  Edfii,  9. 

—  of  Karnak,  126.     See  Karnak  also. 

—  of  Luxor,  125, 128. 
Temples  as  places  of  worship,  5. 

—  in  mounds,  11. 

—  sites,  78. 
Teucrians,  the,  76. 
Thales,  166. 

Theban  triad,  Amen,  Maut,  Khonsu,  262. 
Thebes,  4, 11,  17,73,76,97,112,119,126, 

133,  155,  166,  167,  198,  219,  230,  256, 

260,  291,  300. 

—  founded  in  the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  227. 

—  kings  of,  159. 

—  nobles  and  tombs,  84. 

—  paintings  on  tombs,  81  ;  on  walls,  178. 

—  period  in  Egyptian  art,  81. 

—  princes  of,  149. 

—  sculptured  illustrations  at,  216. 
Theodosius  I.,  24,  118. 

—  abolishing  of  religion  by,  134. 
Thera,  79. 

—  inscriptions  at,  79. 
Thespis,  196. 

Thinis,  Prince  of  Mena,  38. 
Thoth  (scribe),  228,  295. 
Thothmes  I,  129,  261,  263. 

—  marriages  of,  297  ;  wives  of,  264. 
Thothmes  II.,  261,  264,  296. 

—  marriage  with  Hatasu,  264. 

—  mummy  of,  297. 

—  reigning  with  Hatasu,  269. 

—  Temple  of,  at  Karnak,  274. 

—  III.  (Alexander  of  Egyptian  history), 
13,  76,  78, 150,  160,  167,  173, 179, 191, 
202,  223,  224,  270. 

—  as  brother  of  Hatasu,  266. 

—  as  husband  of  Hatasu's  daughter,  267. 

—  character  and  conquests  of,  198,  199, 
268. 

—  effacing  records  of  Hatasu.  296,  297. 

—  Great  Temple  at  Karnak,  175, 274,275. 

—  mummy  of,  297. 

—  son  of  Thothmes  I.  and  Lady  As-t,  264. 
Thrace,  163. 

Ti  (gentleman  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty),  140. 

Tii  (Queen),  wife  of  Amenhotep  III. ;  Ma- 

riette,  wife  of  Horernheb,  Maspero,  150. 


INDEX. 


325 


Timotheus,  196. 
Timsah,  Lake,  280. 
Titus,  96.     . 
Tombs,  4,  12,  84. 

—  of  Priest-Kings,  297. 

—  painting  of  Theban  times,  81. 
Totemism,  Bull-clan,  Crocodile-elan,  etc., 

230.     See  Religion. 
Touaou  (modern  Kosseir)  276. 
Treasuries   of  Athens,  Mycenae,  Argolis, 

Minyas,  etc., 167-170.    See,  also,  Raam- 

ses  and  Pi  thorn. 
Troad,  203. 
Troglodytes,  288. 
Troy,  26,  171,  205. 
Tsan  (Ta-an),  Greek  Tanis,  Hebrew  Zoan, 

Petrie  at,  60. 
Turn,  44. 

—  as  Tumu,  Atmu,  description  of,  81. 
Turanians,  168. 

—  types  of,  147. 
Turin,  259. 
Turks,  5. 

Tursha  (Egyptian  Etruscans),  77,  79,  92. 

—  identity  of  the,  77. 
Tuscan  poetry,  225. 
Tyrrhene  Sea,  78. 

Tyrrhenes,  Turseni  (Greek  Etrurians),  92. 

UABRA,  61. 

Uatmes,  chapel  of,  264. 

—  Prince,  son  of  Thothmes  I.,  264. 
Unas  II.,  227. 

Upper  Egypt,  4,  14,  40,  46. 
Urtheku,  295. 
Usertesen  II.,  77,  78,  168. 
Ushabti,  funerary  statuettes  at,  298. 

VALLEYS  of  the  Hamamat,  76. 

—  the  Nile.     See  Nile. 

—  the  Tombs   of  the  Kings,   153,  155, 
270. 

Vases,  4. 
Verulam,  44. 

Victory,  Chant  of.     See  "  Chant  of  Vic- 
tory." 

WADY  T^MILAT,  42,  46,  48. 

—  located,  280. 

—  mound  of,  41. 
Weapons,  4. 


Wellington,  114. 
Wiedemann,  Dr.,  117. 

—  on  Egyptian  ideas,  130. 
Wigs,  4. " 

Wilkinson,  178. 
Wilson,  Sir  Erasmus,  40. 
Woltmann's  History  of  Painting,  87. 
"Wooden  Man  of  Bulak."  139,' 143. 
Writing,  Demotic,  256,  258. 

—  compared  with  Mexican,  249. 

—  earliest  examples  in  relief,  237. 

—  examples  given,  243, 247, 25 1-253, 255. 

—  explained  as  gesture  language,  24.9. 

—  first  alphabet  invented  by  Egyptians, 
244. 

—  general  development  amongEgyptians, 
Hiuites,  etc.;  Herodotus  quoted,  234, 
235. 

—  generic  determinatives  illustrated,  248, 
249. 

—  Hieroglyphic,  alphabet  given,  245. 

—  history  of,  256-258. 

—  ideography,  241. 

—  indebtedness  of  Greeks,  244. 

—  its  simplicity  its  stumbling-block,  250, 
251. 

—  of  Mexico,  237,  238. 

—  of  Paleolithic  period,  Europe,  239, 240. 

—  of  the  Phoenicians,  244. 

—  papyrus  for,  256. 

—  subjects  and  materials,  258,  259. 

—  theories  about  origin  of,  236,  245-247. 

XAXTHEAN  tombs,  189. 
Xanthus,  188. 
Xeuxis,74,  106,  112. 

YAKDTS  of  Siberia,  230. 

Yavan,  160. 

Yemen  as  a  centre  of  commerce,  276. 

—  on  coast  of  Arabia,  276. 

ZAGAZIG,  19,  41. 

—  ancient  Bubastis,  280. 
Zanzibar,  279. 
Zedekiah,  61. 

—  daughters   of,  history   given,  61-69, 
165. 

Zeller,  Professor,  171. 
Zeus,  29,  75,  90,  102,  229. 
Zoan,  6,  50. 


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Bible  Lands  I  their  Modern  Customs  and  Manners  Illustrative  of 
Scripture.  By  the  Rev.  HENRY  J.  VAN-LENNEP,  D.D.  With 
upward  of  350  Wood  Engravings  and  two  Colored  Maps.  8vo, 
Cloth,  $5  00 ;  Sheep,  |6  00  ;  Half  Morocco,  $8  00. 

The  Ancient  Cities  Of  the  New  World:  being  Voyages  and  Ex- 
plorations in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  from  1857  to  1882. 
By  DESIRE  CHARNAY.  Translated  from  the  French.  Introduction 
by  ALLEN  THORNDIKE  RICE.  Profusely  Illustrated.  Royal  8vo, 
Cloth,  Uncut  Edges,  Gilt  Top,  $6  00. 

History  Of  Ancient  Art.  By  Dr.  FRANZ  VON  REBER.  Revised 
by  the  Author.  Translated  and  Augmented  by  JOSEPH  THACHER 
CLARKE.  With  310  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  83  50. 

History  Of  Mediaeval  Art.  By  Dr.  FRANZ  VON  REBER.  Trans- 
lated and  Augmented  by  JOSEPH  THACHER  CLARKE.  With  422 
Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

The  Past  in  the  Present :  What  is  Civilization  ?  By  ARTHUR 
MITCHELL,  M.D.,  LL.D.  Illustrated.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

The  North  Americans  of  Antiquity.    Their  Origin,  Migrations, 

and  Type  of  Civilization  Considered.     By  JOHN  T.  SHORT.     Illus- 
trated.    8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 


PUBLISHED  BY  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  NEW  YORK. 

v^TFor  sale  by  ail  booksellers,  or  will  be  Kent  by  the  publishers,  pottage  prepaid, 
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BY  DR.  HENRY  SCHLIEMANN. 


ILIOS,  the  City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans.  The  Results  of 
Researches  and  Discoveries  on  the  Site  of  Troy  and  throughout 
the  Troad  in  the  years  187l-'72-'73-'78-'79  ;  including  an  Auto- 
biography of  the  Author.  By  Dr.  HENRY  SCHLIEMANN,  F.S.  A.,  etc. 
With  a  Preface,  Appendices,  and  Notes,  pp.  xvi.,  800.  Maps, 
Plans,  and  about  1800  Illustrations.  Royal  8vo,  Cloth,  $7  50. 

This  new  book  is  profoundly  fascinating.  .  .  .  This  noble  book  of  Dr.  Schliemann 
is  a  tale  of  absorbing  interest,  and  has  the  undoubted  merit  of  being  "  all  true," 
whatever  critics  may  say  of  the  author's  speculations  and  theories.  ...  It  is  far 
larger,  more  minute  and  copious  in  details,  fuller  of  autobiographical  incidents,  and 
more  richly  illustrated  than  any  of  his  previous  works.  Some  of  the  most  learned 
Orientalists  and  archaeologists  of  the  world  have  contributed  to  it.  ...  "  Ilios  "  is 
published  in  a  substantial  style  of  beauty  commensurate  with  the  great  merits  of 
the  work. — N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce. 

Few  readers  of  this  splendid  volume  will  close  its  pages  without  the  conviction  of 
intuition  that  they  have  been  visiting  the  city  of  Priam  and  the  scenes  of  Homer's 
immortal  song.  And  those  who  yield  only  to  the  conviction  of  reason  will  admit 
that  the  excavations  of  Hissarlik  would  have  had  an  imperishable  value  even  if  the 
"  Iliad  "  had  never  been  sung. — N.  Y.  Tribune. 

TROJA:  Results  of  the  Latest  Researches  and  Discoveries  on  the 
Site  of  Homer's  Troy  and  in  the  Heroic  Tumuli  and  other  Sites 
made  in  the  Year  1882  ;  and  a  Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  the  Troad 
in  1881.  By  Dr.  HENRY  SCHLIEMANN,  Hon.  D.C.L.,  Oxon.,  and 
Hon.  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  F.S.A.,  etc.  pp.  xl.,  434. 
With  150  Wood-cuts  and  4  Maps  and  Plans.  8vo.,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

Dr.  Schliemann's  book  is  a  precious  repository  of  secrets  which  for  some  thirty 
centuries  have  been  locked  within  the  earth. . . .  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
his  labors  his  single  object  was  to  settle  a  question  whicli  had  been  quarrelled  over 
by  a  hundred  scholars,  but  which  as  yet  no  one  had  attempted  so  solve  by  excava- 
tions— in  other  words,  to  find  Troy.  In  the  judgment  of  competent  and  candid 
students  of  archaeology  there  is  no  longer  any  room  for  doubt  that  he  has  found  it. 
— N.  Y.  Sun. 

Dr.  Schliemann,  indeed,  has  erected  for  himself  a  name  that  can  never  be  for- 
gotten, even  when  the  memory  of  the  plaudits  that  have  greeted  him  in  the  univer- 
sities of  Germany,  or  in  the  oldest  university  of  our  own  land,  shall  have  passed 
away.  The  present  volume  may  be  considered  as  the  supplement  and  completion  of 
"  Ilios."  . . .  The  results,  which  to  some  extent  modify  and  correct  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  in  "Ilios,"  are  of  the  highest  value. — Prof  A.  H.  SAYCE,  Oxford. 


PUBLISHED  BY  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  NEW  YOKK. 

or  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  will  be  sent  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  postpaid, 
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